Author: Air Marshal Gurcharan Singh Bedi (Retd), Former DG (I&S), IAF
28 April 2023

Keywords: Strategy, Technology, Hypersonic, AI/ML, Quantum

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Keywords: Security, Economy, leadership, infiltration, intelligence, counter terrorism, border

India and Pakistan have had a chequered history of perpetual dissonance since August 15, 1947. This tension continues even to this day, regardless of the fact that both nations had undergone a painful partition and had constantly been victims of organised terror. This horror continues to haunt both nations. History tells us that both nations have been involved in perpetual discord over Kashmir. But to compound an already tricky situation, Pakistan has been found to be facing innumerable security disquiets from within.

Situation in Pakistan

Pakistan, as of date, faces tremendous security threats from inside as well as from external terrorist outfits, the fiercest being the Afghanistan-based Taliban. To compound it, with the Taliban enjoying free access into Pakistan and India sharing its border with Pakistan, the situation becomes murkier for India by virtue of enhancing the chances of infiltration by the Taliban-backed terror outfits. In addition, there are a number of terror outfits operating at the behest of Pakistan, i.e., Al-Qaeda, Lashkar-e-Omar, Lashkar-e-Taiba (LeT), Jaish-e-Mohammed (JeM), Sipah-e-Sahaba, Jaishul-Adl, Al Badr Mujahideen, Harkatul Mujahideen, etc.

However, despite Pakistan’s crumbling economy and wide-ranging internal discords, the patronage available to the internationally declared terrorist outfits is one of the best in the world. Pakistan, recently, in a meeting of its National Security Committee, exhibited a sense of urgency in putting an end to all the terrorist outfits and their activities.^[1] In this meeting, a historic decision was taken to put an immediate end to all terrorist activities. All this paints a rosy picture. It can be seen that though Pakistan is trying to showcase its seriousness in dealing firmly with the issue, the ground realities are far from being realistic. This bears significance, especially considering the fact that Pakistan is still offering protection to terrorists like Sayed Salahuddin and Masood Azhar. Recently, the dichotomy between the words and deeds of Pakistan came to light when Syed Salahuddin, under the full protection of Pakistani forces, was noticed offering prayers at the funeral service of recently killed terrorist Basheer Ahmed Peer, alias Imtiyaz Alam.^[2] This brings Pakistani hypocrisy to the fore beyond any imagination.

In addition, the free access accorded to the Taliban dispensation of Afghanistan into Pakistani territory also becomes a serious concern for the security of India. In fact, the Taliban’s return to power in 2021 has empowered Tahreek-e-Taliban, also called the Pakistani Taliban. This outfit ended a ceasefire with the Pakistani government in late 2022 and eventually started attacking the Pakistani establishment.^[3] Hence, this free access to the Taliban into Pakistani territory becomes a cause for serious concern for the security of India against terrorist infiltrations.

To add another dimension to the problem, Pakistan is, of late, experiencing an enhanced cosiness with China, which is natural, especially considering Pakistan’s stakes in the China-Pakistan Economic Corridor (CPEC)^[4] and Chinese financial support^[5] to Pakistan. To prove this point, on February 22, 2023, China approved a loan of US $700 million to support the crumbling Pakistan economy.[6] This closeness of Pakistan to China, read in conjunction with recent Chinese intrusions into Indian territory, assumes worrying postures with regard to India’s border security concerns. Though India is well prepared to deal with terrorist infiltrations and has the potential to eventually guard against the terror attacks on the one hand as well as handle the two-front war threat on the other, there is every need to safeguard against any Pakistani misadventure at the behest of China, thereby further complicating India’s security equations. Therefore, it is felt that putting financial pressure on China through sanctions in conjunction with other friendly countries merits consideration. The USA did it twice in the past with Iran, besides imposing recent restrictions on the supply of US dollar-denominated banknotes to the Russian government against the supplies made by Russia to various nations, thereby putting the whole supply chain into a financial quandary.[7]

Strategy to tackle the terrorist activities

India has already embarked on testing and validating its military SOPs in conjunction with the militaries of friendly nations. The Indian military contingent, comprising of 200 personnel from the Army and 38 personnel from the Indian Air Force, actively participated in the recently conducted multinational Exercise Peaceful Mission-2021 held under the aegis of the Shanghai Cooperation Organisation (SCO).^[8]

The conclusion of a multinational treaty among member nations to actively assist each other in tackling the terror strikes is expected to go a long way in helping the terror-hit nations. Moreover, the SOPs for tackling the terror strikes that form part of the curriculum of such joint exercises, suiting the terrain and requirements peculiar to the respective member countries, and the takeaways therefrom being shared, have the potential to address the terror menace more effectively. This is expected to find favourable consideration, especially because all the participating member nations have been victims of organised terrorist activities at some point in time or another and therefore share a common concern.

Technically, protecting the country’s borders from terrorist infiltration calls for a multi-pronged approach that involves a judicious blend of hard and soft power options, i.e., a mix of diplomatic, military, intelligence, and law enforcement activities. However, with a view to tackling it broadly militarily, the responsible agencies are already addressing the issue in the most professional manner. Yet, there are some strategies that India may consider adopting and reinforcing so as to protect against terrorist infiltration via the Pakistan border.

It would be worthwhile to consider enlarging the cadre strength of the Central Armed Police Forces (CAPFs), and particularly the Border Security Force (BSF), to strengthen border security through the deployment of a larger number of battalions specially trained in counter infiltration ground defence operations. These forces can be trained by the Special Forces of the Indian Army to conduct specialised operations to neutralise the terror outfits in case they have somehow been able to infiltrate. The long experience of the BSF in adherence to SOPs for preventing infiltration combined with objective training by Special Forces in combating the infiltrators and the use of advanced surveillance systems, e.g., drones, sensors, cameras, etc., would act as a force multiplier in the operations to enhance the punch of the armour.

The Research and Analysis Wing (R&AW) and Information Bureau (IB) are professionally trained external and internal intelligence agencies, respectively, working on the ground under a single umbrella despite being established under two different organisations. While R&AW functions under the Cabinet Secretariat, the IB serves under the Ministry of Home Affairs. These agencies are experienced in gathering, researching, and analysing all types of intelligence and are, therefore, catalysts in apprehending the likely terror strikes. The sharing of intel between the working echelons of these agencies is taking place to a large extent. Still, the process needs to be made smoother and more regular and go down even to the operative levels of the armed forces, the BSF and other agencies involved in preventing the infiltration and likely terror strikes. There should also be provisions for assigning and fixing clear-cut responsibilities at all levels, so as to deter a likely intelligence failure.

This apart, the experience and SOPs followed by similar intelligence agencies in developed countries, e.g., the CIA, KGB, Mossad, etc., may also be shared with the Indian intelligence agencies through regular specialised cross-training consequent upon inter-governmental agreements to this effect to be concluded during interactions of the highest Indian leadership with these developed nations at international forums or during mutual visits. Furthermore, enhancing the scope of intelligence gathering with deeper penetration of homegrown intelligence assets into enemy strongholds using state-of-the-art equipment is more likely to benefit the collection and collation of inputs and would be the catalyst to counter the planning by terrorist organisations and various terror networks involved within the country.

The updation of the latest technologies of intelligence gathering is regularly taking place in the respective intelligence agencies and working fine with regard to passive and active reconnaissance. Passive reconnaissance aims at obtaining information without directly engaging with the target through all the information available in the public domain, e.g. Facebook, LinkedIn, Twitter, Instagram, etc. It is ideal for getting background information about the target. Active reconnaissance requires interacting with the target face-to-face in innocuous ways and luring the target to share input on specific weaknesses that may be ascertained from intel.^[9] These updates are in place, yet the intelligence gathering technologies need to be regularly updated, streamlined, and strengthened from time to time so as to keep pace with the latest advancements in the field of information and communication technologies.

Increasing military cooperation with the countries, especially those sharing a border with Pakistan, would be useful to a great extent in creating a well-coordinated environment for preventing cross-border infiltration and tackling terrorism. It seems possible to accomplish it through active liaison with international agencies. One such agency is the Terrorism Prevention Branch of the United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime.^[10]

As stated above, a multinational treaty between affected neighbouring nations to actively assist each other in tackling the terror strikes would be highly useful in helping the member nations. SCO is a platform with the potential to ensure this aim. Furthermore, special joint military training on handling terror strikes may be considered at appropriate levels to form part of the curriculum of joint military exercises relevant to the terrain and environmental requirements peculiar to the respective member countries. The takeaways from these efforts need to be shared among all the stakeholders.

It would be worthwhile to consider the formulation and implementation of counter-terrorism strategies that are tailor-made to suit the specific threat situations^[11] posed by terrorist groups operating in the region and tackle them with a combination of military, law enforcement, and intelligence efforts. This is likely to be handled better by enhancing community engagement with the population living around the border areas, which may be useful in building trust and cooperation and, in short, confidence building measures (CBMs).^[12] Coupled with a system of providing personal protection and suitable rewards, this may help in creating an unofficial force of committed citizens with a shared sense of responsibility for border security. This is in force in Jammu and Kashmir in the form of the Special Police Officers (SPO) scheme, whereby influential local people are designated as SPOs and help the local police and security forces. This would facilitate prompt reporting of suspicious activities and addressing them in time, besides creating reliable ground-based sources of intelligence gathering.

Increasing the already mounting diplomatic pressure on Pakistan may be considered by India so as to take action against terrorist groups harboured and operating within Pakistani boundaries.^[13] One of the viable options may be to have the potential to impose sanctions, international denunciation, and diplomatic isolation on the adversary. Pakistan, as of now, enjoys the support of China, and therefore expecting China to help tame Pakistan is a definite impossibility. India, in conjunction with other countries like Russia and the USA, may consider putting financial pressure on China through sanctions in a similar way that the USA did with Iran and through payment restrictions in US dollars, stalling the payments to Russia for supplies made to various countries.

Conclusion

It can safely be opined that India presently stands highly vulnerable against prevailing uncertainty and unrest in Pakistan as far as its national security concerns are concerned, especially considering the fact that the protection of our borders from terrorist infiltration is a complex and challenging mission. However, notwithstanding the above, we have reasons to believe that India is handling the matter well with a high degree of professionalism and a matching sense of commitment.

This is also relevant to state here that by implementing a combination of some of the above-stated strategies, India stands a better prospect of significantly minimising the risk of terrorist attacks in the face of constant infiltrations. All these factors taken together, along with the high standards of the Indian armed forces and paramilitary forces’ preparedness and a track record of efficiently tackling external threats, make India undoubtedly well equipped with the capability to tackle the challenges posed to its national security by the current politico-security situation prevailing in Pakistan.

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Notes:-

(1) “Shehbaz Sharif’s National Security Council Meeting Ends | Inside Important Details | Breaking News,” YouTube  Video, 1:45, ‘BOL News,’ April 7, 2023, https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=bd9pORI0I1s. Accessed on April 08, 2023

[2] “In a rare appearance, Salahuddin offers funeral prayers for assassinated close aide in Pakistan,” The Hindu, February 22, 2023, https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/in-a-rare-appearance-salahuddin-offers-funeral-prayers-for-assassinated-close-aide-in-pakistan/article66541934.ece. Accessed on April 08, 2023

[3] “The Taliban in Afghanistan,” Council on Foreign Relations, January 19, 2023,

https://www.cfr.org/backgrounder/taliban-afghanistan. Accessed on April 08, 2023

[4] “Delay in CPEC projects sowing frustration in Pakistan, China: Report,” Economic Times, May 7, 2022,

https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/news/international/world-news/delay-in-cpec-projects-sowing-frustration-in-pakistan-china-report/articleshow/91402698.cms?from=mdr. Accessed on March 29, 2023

[5] “With China’s funding, is Pakistan also headed for Sri Lanka-like financial crisis?,” Live Mint, February 8, 2023,

https://www.livemint.com/news/world/with-china-s-funding-is-pakistan-also-headed-for-sri-lanka-like-financialcrisis-11677596938532.html. Accessed on March 29, 2023

[6] “Pakistan To Get $700 Million Loan From China: Finance Minister,” NDTV, February 22, 2023, https://www.ndtv.com/world-news/pak-minister-says-china-approved-700-million-loan-to-pakistan-3804970. Accessed on April 17, 2023

[7] “New US Restrictions Impact Russia-Related Imports and Exports, US Dollar-Denominated Banknotes,” Skadden, March 17, 2022, https://www.skadden.com/insights/publications/2022/03/new-us-restrictions-impact-russia-related-imports. Accessed on April 17, 2023

[8] “Peace Mission-2021: India takes part in SCO joint military exercise in Russia,” India Today, September 15, 2021, https://www.indiatoday.in/india/story/peace-mission-2021-indian-army-sco-joint-military-exercise-russia-1853099-2021-09-15. Accessed on March 29, 2023

[9] “Intelligence Gathering – The Foundation of a Good Penetration Test,” Core Security,  https://www.coresecurity.com/blog/intelligence-gathering-foundation-good-penetration-test. Accessed on March 30, 2023

[10] “Strengthening International Cooperation in Criminal Matters,” United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime, https://www.unodc.org/unodc/en/terrorism/news-and-events/strengthening-international-cooperation.html. Accessed on March 30, 2023

[11] Paul Staniland, “Improving India’s Counterterrorism Policy after Mumbai,” Combating Terrorism Centre, April 2009, https://ctc.westpoint.edu/improving-indias-counterterrorism-policy-after-mumbai/. Accessed on March 30, 2023

[12] Om Shankar Jha, “Community participation in border management Challenges and Options” Journal of Defence Studies, IDSA, https://www.idsa.in/system/files/jds_3_3_osjha.pdf. Accessed on March 30, 2023

[13]  “Pakistan: Friend Or Foe In The Fight Against Terrorism?,” U.S. Government Publishing Office, July 12, 2016, https://www.govinfo.gov/content/pkg/CHRG-114hhrg20742/html/CHRG-114hhrg20742.htm. Accessed on March 30, 2023

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Keywords: Exercise Cope India 23, Indian Air Force, India-US joint Exercise, Bomber

Washington has sent a pair of B-1B ‘Lancer’ bombers to India to participate in the India-US air force drill ‘Exercise Cope India 23.’ The 12 days exercise between the Indian Air Force (IAF) and the US Air Force (USAF) started on April 13 at Kalaikunda Air Force Station, West Bengal. ‘Exercise Cope India’ was instituted in 2004 as a fighter training exercise. This year’s edition is taking place in two phases: the initial phase was at Kalaikunda, while the second phase was at the Air Force Station Agra.[1] The South China Morning Post reported that the US B-1B supersonic heavy bombers and the USAF’s F-15 fighter aircraft would participate in a joint drill with the IAF fighters along the India-China border areas in the second phase of the exercise.[2] The presence of supersonic bombers in the US contingent is a strategic signal to China that India-US joint mechanism can be a lethal counterweight to China’s military power in the Indo-Pacific.

Held alternately in India and the US every year, ‘Exercise Cope India/Thunder’ is the third armed forces exercise between the US and India. The naval exercise ‘Malabar’ started in 1992, and ‘Yudh Abhyas’ by the armies established in 2002, are the other two. The 2022 edition of the ‘Yudh Abhyas’ was also held in the Himalayan border area at Auli in Uttarakhand, about 100 km from the Line of Actual Control (LAC).[3]

Even though the Indo-Pacific is a maritime construct, the US and China are competing for aerial supremacy because, without it, naval assets on the seas are highly vulnerable, including aircraft carriers. China’s anti-access area-denial (A2/AD) systems are to gain aerial supremacy in the western Pacific. Last November, China unveiled its stealth bomber, the H-20. This is seen as an answer to the US’ 6^th-generation bomber B-21 ‘Raider.’

Bombers are gaining increasing importance in the air power dynamics of the Indo-Pacific. As bombers are heavy aircraft, they can carry more weapons and have a longer range than fighter aircraft; thus, they can conduct long-range precision strikes. As a result, the US had put on hold the development of  next-generation fighter aircraft after the 5^th-generation of the F-35 Lighting and F-22 Raptor and instead focused on developing the world’s first 6^th-generation bomber, the B-21 Raider. [4] However, recently, the US Navy and Air Force have revived the 6^th generation fighter program but has not finalised yet about the type of the system and the company.[5]The Pentagon believes that the B-21 Raider could fly under the nose of Chinese S-400 air defence systems and Northrop Grumman is producing five such bombers for the USAF.[6] The B-21 Raiders are going to be the mainstay of the US bomber category for the next three to four decades, and the USAF plans to induct a minimum of 100 Raiders.[7]

This is the first time ever that the US is despatching a bomber for the India-US air force drill. The presence of bombers is a clear signal to China about the importance India attaches to air superiority in areas of interest on land and at sea in partnership with strategic partners. The B-2 is the existing advanced bomber of the USAF. The USAF B-1B Lancer is another strategic bomber with deep-strike capability outside the defence zone. However, due to its heavy maintenance costs, the Lancer makes few appearances in drills. The IAF doesn’t have a bomber in its inventory, while China has a total of 150 bombers of four types from the H-6 series (H-6M, H-6-H, H-6K, and H-6N).[8] In recent times, China has enhanced its airfields in western China, including the Hotan, Gar Gunsa, Hopping, Kashghar, Linzhi, Dkonka Dzong, and Pangat airbases in the Xinjiang and Tibet regions. The People’s Liberation Army Air Force has already deployed Sukhoi-30MKKs and six H-6 bombers with KD-63 cruise missiles at the Kashgar airbase in Xinjiang.[9]

The participation of a US bomber in the India-US air exercise will allow IAF personnel to become familiar with jointly operating bombers and fighter aircraft with the US in future combat operations. The US defence systems are technologically advanced, and Washington is pushing India to buy more arms from the US to ‘avoid overdependence on Russia.’[10] As a result, India-US defence cooperation has transformed from buying supporting systems from the US to joint development and buying offensive systems for the Indian armed forces.

Conclusion

Bringing advanced new systems into the joint exercise will help improve interoperability between the two forces. It will also enable the IAF to understand technological changes in the aerial domain. Both countries’ air forces have been increasingly cooperating in recent times; last year, the IAF joined the multilateral ‘Exercise Pitch Black 2022’ with the USAF in Australia. Even though multirole fighter aircraft would be used in the Himalayan theatre against China but given China’s increased military focus towards the Indian Ocean, bombers could be handy against China in a joint India-US operation in the maritime theatre. In this regard, the participation of bombers in an air exercise is a strategic boost for New Delhi to counter the threat from Beijing.

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Notes:-

(1) “Exercise Cope India 2023”, Press Information Bureau, April 10, 2023, https://pib.gov.in/PressReleaseIframePage.aspx?PRID=1915316. Accessed on April 21, 2023.

[2] Zhao Ziwen, “US supersonic bombers to make surprise appearance in drill near disputed China-India border”, South China Morning Post, April 21, 2023, https://www.scmp.com/news/china/military/article/3217774/us-supersonic-bombers-make-surprise-appearance-drill-near-disputed-china-india-border?module=lead_hero_story&pgtype=homepage. Accessed on April 21, 2023.

[3] Dinakar Peri, “Five bilateral Army exercises under way, including ‘Yudh Abhyas’ in Uttarakhand”, The Hindu, November 29, 2022, https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/five-bilateral-army-exercises-under-way-including-yudh-abhyas-in-uttarakhand/article66201755.ece. Accessed on April 21, 2023.

[4] Kris Osborn, “Navy & Air Force 6th Gen Come to Life … Not a Moment Too Soon”, Warrior Maven, April 12, 2023, https://warriormaven.com/air/navy-air-force-6th-gen-f22-f35. Accessed on April 22, 2023.

[5] Joseph Trevithick, “FF/A-XX Future Navy Fighter’s Big Funding Points To Prototypes”, The Drive, March 27, 2023, https://www.thedrive.com/the-war-zone/big-ramp-up-in-f-a-xx-future-navy-fighter-funding-points-to-prototypes

(6] John A. Tirpak, “Kendall: Modernize Now to Counter China”, Air And Space Forces Magazine, September 20, 2021, https://www.airandspaceforces.com/kendall-modernize-now-to-counter-china/?utm_source=rss&utm_medium=rss&utm_campaign=kendall-modernize-now-to-counter-china. Accessed on April 21, 2023.

[7] W.J. Hennigan, “Exclusive: The Making of the U.S. Military’s New Stealth Bomber”, Time, December 3, 2022, https://time.com/6238168/b-21-raider-bomber-us-military-exclusive/. Accessed on April 21, 2023.

[8] Military Balance 2023, London: International Institute of Strategic Studies, 2023, p. 242.

[9] Smriti Chaudhary, “After Spotting J-20 Jets, Nuclear-Capable H-6 Bombers, India Deeply Monitoring Chinese Air Bases”, The Eurasian Times, August 21, 2020, https://eurasiantimes.com/after-spotting-j-20-jets-nuclear-capable-h-6-bombers-india-deeply-monitoring-chinese-air-bases/. Accessed on November 10, 2022, accessed on April 21, 2023.

[10] “US-India in talks to reduce country’s dependence on Russian arms, energy”, Business Standard, September 21, 2022, https://www.business-standard.com/article/current-affairs/us-india-in-talks-to-reduce-country-s-dependence-on-russian-arms-energy-122092100804_1.html. Accessed on April 21, 2023.

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Keywords: Cyber Security, Russia-Ukraine War, Cyber Attack, Atmanirbhar Bharat

Conventional wisdom argues that ‘it is best to learn from others’ mistakes,’ and this is the underlying operating mechanism of international arena. States are constantly engaging with each other on different parameters based entirely on their security calculations. These calculations are a result of various variables, including perception, hard power capabilities, and how a state is positioned in the international order.  These calculations and their results keep changing purely because states continue to thrive for the betterment, and the world order never remains the same. While on this transition journey, states often take note of similar events, as episodes in international politics are recurring where only the actors change. This paves the way for strategies, diplomatic turns, alliances, competition, and rivalry.

The states so far have excelled in their understanding of conventional warfare, owing to the fact that the world has seen far too many wars on all levels, from domestic to international. And despite knowing the odds, states refuse to let go of war as an instrument. The latest entry in this list of conflicts is the one between Russia and Ukraine. This war, in particular, has gone into the zone of ‘hybrid’ warfare and has left ample lessons on the floor to collect. The war has an explicit side where tanks, missiles, aircraft, troops, and artillery are being used. However, a shadow war that runs parallel often falls short of attention. A reason for this can be the ‘out of sight’ domain of these operations, as they occur mainly in the unconventional spaces of cyber, information, intelligence, espionage, etc. They have changed the security balance indicators as they allow even small powers to operate beyond their conventional strengths.[1]

The first thing that evolved was the involvement of state-sponsored, non-state actors. It is not just meant for Ukraine-Russia, but other actors like North Korea, Iran, and China might further their actions in this ‘fog of war.’[2] These situations bring down the rate of attribution and make it difficult to assess them. Moreover, the Russian actors have managed to break into the ‘air-gapped’ networks of several US companies.[3] Therefore, advancing the nature of attacks. Hence, India needs to develop a mechanism where it can reduce the effects of the ‘fog of war’ if a situation like this arrives, especially when it has China as an adversary.

In addition, the network of hacktivists is active in various domains, crossing several red lines, and there have been cyclic episodes of ransomware incidents. Another tool that has surfaced around this time is the ability of intelligence services to interfere in the elections. Their method of ‘hack and dump’[4] information to unleash economic and political unrest has been a repeated practice.[5] Therefore, in democratic states like India, where public opinion is the backbone of state structure, safeguarding the social fabric becomes crucial. For instance, France and the US were worried about Russia’s attempt to interfere in their elections to counter their support for Ukraine.

The cyber activities are not just operational on land; they have also reached the realm of space. Government and commercial satellites and assets in space are essential because they incorporate ever-evolving technologies for broadband services, global positioning systems (GPS), imaging, and communications.[6] Russia has been maintaining a range of anti-satellite (ASAT) weapons that are meant to disrupt the US and other allies’ space capabilities. In addition, Russia is testing, fielding, and developing various destructive and non-destructive counter-space weapons that include cyberspace capabilities, jamming, directed energy weapons, ground-based ASAT capabilities, and on-orbit capabilities. This has been a particular lesson for all the states alike, especially when it comes to linking cyber with space.[7] Some states are still working to build primary-level offensive capabilities, while cyber as an offensive tool has breached all possible security layers. Hence, it becomes important for states to consider these aspects and develop counter-capabilities against them. A technology pool can be a possible way out for countries that are not advanced in their cyber capabilities. While the West has been pulling its resources together, India needs to chip in and make security alliances on these fronts.

There were attacks on the US communications satellite KA-SAT, which impacted the coverage of the war in several European countries, including Germany and France. Furthermore, Europe’s windmill turbines, which produced nearly 11 gigawatts of energy, were disrupted. This affected the country’s energy supply and flagged the issue of critical infrastructure being increasingly pulled into conventional warfare.[8] This leaves states with an important lesson about how best to safeguard the lines of critical infrastructure and, in case of their rupture, what can be the minimum possible time to fix it. Countries like China are trying to address this issue by deploying artificial intelligence (AI). AI helps bring down the time of revamping such casualties drastically. It also strengthens the overall security architecture at multiple levels. At present, India is using AI in its defence sector at a marginal level. This includes surveillance and reconnaissance capabilities by deploying unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs) and drones that are equipped with AI-powered sensors and cameras. These drones can conduct intelligent analysis of the images and data captured during their operation, helping the defence forces to identify threats, monitor remote locations, and gather intelligence. In addition, AI-enabled autonomous weapons that are being developed, such as unmanned ground vehicles (UGVs), drones, and combat robots, can conduct military operations autonomously with minimum human interference, training, and simulation. AI-powered simulation tools can create realistic training environments that closely mimic real-life scenarios, helping the forces prepare for a range of situations. Although these developments are going in the right direction, their pace is relatively slow.

Countries are increasingly incorporating their private sector into the larger security framework by working with them on technological lines. For instance, in its guidance for the Office of the Director of National Intelligence’s Science and Technology for 2022 to 2026, the US has brought out the need to remove barriers and connect programme managers with private industries and technology developers.[9] This would help it maintain an edge in the technological domain. With its schemes like ‘Aatmanirbhar Bharat’ or ‘Make in India,’ India tried to provide a push for such practices, but the realisation of these goals is far from near. India still relies on imports for essential products and resources such as crude oil, coal, electronic components, and machinery.

India’s domestic manufacturing sector suffers from inadequate infrastructure, such as power, transport, and connectivity, which can increase production costs and delay the delivery of goods. Additionally, the country faces a shortage of skilled labourers and engineers, which can limit the quality and innovation of indigenous goods. Lastly, the channels of communication and operations are extremely bureaucratic in nature. This demotivates the private sector from stepping in. The government needs to ease these processes and bring down hurdles that hinder smooth collaboration between the private and public sectors, especially in the defence sector.

 The following are recommendations that the state can work upon in order to improve its cyber profile. Time is a luxury that the state cannot afford during a cyber-attack, India should get rid of long processes in rulemaking and decision-making in case of a cyber breach. This action should also involve sharing expedited information with stakeholders from the various government branches along with the private sector.

The critical infrastructure needs to be ‘cyber-proof’ along with training and maintaining cyber resources, capabilities, and a workforce, and consider signing a Memorandum of Understanding (MoU) with states for feasible sharing of information. The critical infrastructure that is privately owned is brought into the fold when devising policies and actions for firms. A common error that often happens is that too many agencies are involved in a single issue. The approach largely is ‘one-size-fits-all,’ and a policy is carved. This leaves out the scope of expertise that is required in each domain. Hence, this issue needs to be rectified.

India has still not fully tapped into the potential of its private sector to nourish a sound public-private partnership, which might include better research and development (R&D), cyber exercises, and better defence. The government should roll out plans to conduct ‘cyber storm’ exercises along with preparing resilience and remedies for cyber-related situations. Countries like the US and China are also including several exercises that can help them fix critical infrastructure in case of a cyberattack, especially on the power grid. They have also included firms like Microsoft to detect viruses and recover accordingly. India needs to put more resources and thoughts into these lines and bridge this gap between the private and public sectors.

In terms of cooperation, India and the US set up the United States-India Cyber Dialogue in 2015, which aims to promote cooperation on cybersecurity and cybercrime issues. Both countries have also signed a cybersecurity agreement to enhance information sharing and capacity building; an MoU with Japan on cybersecurity cooperation aims to jointly address the issues of cyber threats, capacity building, and exchange of information. Another MoU has been signed with the European Union on cooperation in the field of cybersecurity, which focuses on enhancing cooperation on incident management, public-private partnerships, and research and development. In addition, India also has a cybersecurity agreement in place with Israel to promote cooperation in cyberspace, exchange information on cyber threats and best practices, and strengthen capacity building, along with a joint declaration with ASEAN on cooperation in cybersecurity, which aims to promote dialogue, capacity building, and cooperation in addressing cybercrime and other cyber threats. Albeit this is a step in the right direction, it can expand and evolve manifolds by including joint cyber defence exercises, technology sharing, and R&D.

India should invest in the operational technology (OT) and cybersecurity of military and commercial platforms. The threats to nation-states are growing, and they are intertwined with OT platforms.[10] Energy production, water and waste management, airlines, pipelines, freight trails, etc., all heavily rely on the OT platform, along with the defence weapons system. They would go through a multitude of challenges in the wake of electronic warfare and cyberattacks. For instance, China entered the US defence industrial base through cyber espionage to collect data on US capabilities. This put the US at a disadvantage.[11] Hence, the government should look out for funding and implement measures to tackle OT cyber-attacks.

India has not fully tapped into the potential of open-source intelligence (OSINT). If India manages to scale the use of OSINT, it will help build better capabilities. The state must review and expedite its use. In addition, the state should conduct periodic interagency reviews of all threat actors, capabilities, actions, and policies. Finally, all the stakeholders should be involved in bringing a resilient system. The possibilities in cyberspace remain endless; wisdom is in tapping them before the enemy does.

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Notes:-

[1] Hal Brands, “Paradoxes of the Gray Zone,” Foreign Policy Research Institute, February 5, 2016, https://www.fpri.org/article/2016/02/paradoxes-gray​-zone/. Accessed on April 7, 2023.

[2]Ciaran Martin, “Cyber Realism in a Time of War,” Lawfare Blog, March 2, 2022, https://www.lawfareblog.com/cyber-realism-time-war. Accessed on April 7, 2023.

[3] Rebecca Smith, “Russian Hackers Reach U.S. Utility Control Rooms, Homeland Security Officials Say,” The Wall Street Journal, July 23, 2018, https://www.wsj.com/articles/russian-hackers-reach-u-s-utility-control-rooms-homeland-security-officials-say-1532388110. Accessed on April 7, 2023.

[4] Jean-Baptiste Jeangène Vilmer, The “Macron Leaks” Operation: A Post-Mortem, The Atlantic Council and L’Institut de Recherche Stratégique de l’École Militaire, June 2019, https://www.atlanticcouncil.org/wp-content/uploads/2019/06/The_Macron_Leaks_Operation-A_Post-Mortem.pdf. Accessed on April 7, 2023.

[5] Matt Burgess, “Ukraine’s Volunteer ‘IT Army’ Is Hacking in Uncharted Territory,” Wired, February 27, 2022, https://www.wired.com/story/ukraine-it​-army-russia-war-cyberattacks-ddos/. Accessed on April 7, 2023.

[6] Office of the Director of National Intelligence, Annual Threat Assessment of the U.S. Intelligence Community 2022, February 2022, pp. 12–13, https://​www.dni.gov/files/ODNI/documents/assessments/ATA-2022-Unclassified-Report.pdf. Accessed on April 7, 2023.

[7] Morgan Meaker, “High Above Ukraine, Satellites Get Embroiled in the War,” Wired, March 4, 2022, https://www.wired.com/story/ukraine-russia​-satellites/. Accessed on April 8, 2023.

[8] Joseph Henry, “Europe Cyberattack Results to ‘Massive’ Internet Outage: About 5,800 Wind Turbines Went Offline,” Tech Times, March 5, 2022, https://​www.techtimes.com/articles/272624/20220305/europe-cyberattack-results-massive-internet-outage-5-800-wind-turbines.htm. Accessed on April 8, 2023.

[9] Dustin Carmack and Michael Ellis, “For Cybersecurity, the Best Defense Is a Good Offense,” Heritage Foundation Backgrounder No. 3670, November 10, 2021, https://www.heritage.org/technology/report/cybersecurity-the-best-defense-good-offense. Accessed on April 8, 2023.

[10] James DiPane, “Cybersecurity: Policymakers Need a Consistent Means to Assess Capabilities,” Heritage Foundation Issue Brief, August 25, 2021, https://www.heritage.org/defense/report/cybersecurity-policymakers-need-consistent-means-assess-capabilities. Accessed on April 8, 2023.

[11] Luis Martinez et al., “Major U.S. Weapons Compromised By Chinese Hackers, Report Warns,” ABC News, May 28, 2013, https://abcnews.go.com/Blotter​/major-us-weapons-compromised-chinese-hackers-report-warns/story?id=19271995. Accessed on April 9, 2023.

The post Learning from a Distance: Cyber Lessons for India from Russia-Ukraine War appeared first on CAPSS India.

Keywords: Modernisation, Ideology, Freedom, Inter-Civilisation Dialogue and Cooperation.

President Xi Jinping secured his third term as the Chinese President at the 20^th National Congress of the Chinese Communist Party in 2022. This will boost his policies and initiatives that are aimed at increasing the power and prestige of China to fulfil his Chinese Dream vision and counter the Western hegemony. With this ambition in mind, China launched the Belt and Road Initiative (BRI) in 2013, the Community of Shared Future of Mankind in 2015, the Global Development Initiative (GDI) in 2021, and the Global Security Initiative (GSI) in 2022. Furthermore, in light of US President Joe Biden’s ‘Democracy vs. Authoritarianism’ narrative and ahead of the second Summit for Democracy, Xi Jinping announced the Global Civilisation Initiative (GCI). At the Communist Party of China’s ‘Dialogue with World Political Parties High-level Meeting,’ Xi Jinping argued that the initiative will allow nations worldwide to adopt a new type of modernisation and development and assist them in having a firm hold on their future development and progress.[1]

What is China’s Global Civilisation Initiative?

With the growing strategic competition between the US and China, the bilateral relationship has become more competitive than ever. Thus, the need to address the growing challenges has led to the rise of an ideological debate between the US and China to project and reflect on which governance model is better for the world. While addressing the Munich Security Conference in 2021, US President Joe Biden emphasised that the primary challenge for global politics is an ideology (democracy vs. authoritarian) that needs to be addressed as it has become a serious threat to the world.[2] According to Biden, the current international politics are at an inflexion point, and China has emerged as the US’s leading competitor and intends to impose its model of governance and economic development worldwide through various initiatives. On the other hand, Xi argues that China is pursuing freedom, democracy, and human rights and doesn’t view ideological debate as a defining part of global politics as both nations have their own style of democracy and are working towards the betterment of the world.[3]

With ‘The Road to Modernisation: The Responsibilities of Political Parties’ as the theme of the high-level meeting, more than 150 nations participated virtually in the launch of the GCI. In his speech, Xi Jinping argued that there is a need to address the issue of humanity’s modernisation process, which has reached at a crossroads and requires changes to promote common prosperity and drive the global modernisation process, which benefits all.[4] Furthermore, Xi argues that modernisation isn’t the exclusive patent of a handful of countries, and one size doesn’t fit all to modernise a country; thus, one should consider their national conditions and abilities to modernise themselves.

Meanwhile, China argues that the Chinese government is working to ensure the expansion of market access to others, support others’ development and industrialisation processes under the BRI cooperation and new drivers of global development under GDI to have a global community of development.[5] For China to modernise itself, it doesn’t want its model to adopt a civilisation model based on colonisation and plunder. Unlike others, China doesn’t seek hegemony and power and considers its model of growth to be the right course of peaceful development.

Xi Jinping argues China respects the diversity of civilisation and is ready to work with others to expand the global partnership.[6] To promote the Chinese model of growth, Xi states that China is ready to share its experience and help enhance exchanges and understanding among the global community to make the ‘garden of world civilisation colourful and vibrant.’[7] Under the initiative, China wants other nations to uphold the principle of equality, have an open mindset, refrain from imposing its values and models, and build a global network for inter-civilisational dialogue and cooperation.[8]

To promote modernisation, the GCI highlights the role and responsibilities of political parties. It views them as a vital force in driving the modernisation process, ensuring happy, stable, and better lives for people.[9] Further, the GCI presents China as a willing partner to work with others to promote its modernisation while securing the world peace and prosperity. GCI aims to reduce the gap between the North and South and establish a safe development pattern based on sharing, justice, fairness, and co-construction by giving people more independent choices.

Furthermore, China is using GCI to promote its style of modernisation and wants others to adopt the Chinese development model. The initiative emphasises strong leadership as one of the primary requirements and further promotes the accurate policies of a political party.[10] Xi Jinping maintains a fraternal relationship with political parties worldwide and promotes China as vital to maintaining global peace and stability. Under the initiative, China wants others to take advantage of a new form of party-to-party relationship to build new international relations and expand the global partnership. Xi stresses that nations need to be tolerant, entertain freedom, address chaotic conditions worldwide, and further work towards achieving people’s free and comprehensive development.[11]

Conclusion

With China not being invited to the first Summit for Democracy held by the US in December 2021, the Chinese Foreign Ministry argues that the US is using democracy as a weapon of mass destruction that draws ideological lines between nations, creating division and confrontation worldwide.[12] However, Xi Jinping argues that to make the present better, countries worldwide need to harness the relevance of their histories and cultures and push for creative transformation and innovative development. China argues that GCI isn’t only viewed as a time requirement. It promotes Xi’s stand to respect reality and different civilisations. It allows all to co-exist, exchange ideas, and learn from one another while respecting the diversity of civilisation to steer the modernisation process of human society. The development of Chinese-led initiatives shows China is no longer willing to abide by the US-led global order and is working on expanding its global network, power, and influence.[13] Thus, GCI has become the latest entry in US-China strategic competition and rivalry. The US views China as creating a new space for its rise, for which they’re working to redefine and undermine the West-led global governance system.

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Notes:-

[1] “Full text of Xi Jinping’s keynote address at the CPC in Dialogue with World Political Parties High-level Meeting”, Xinhua, March 16, 2023, https://english.news.cn/20230316/31e80d5da3cd48bea63694cee5156d47/c.html?utm_source=substack&utm_medium=email. Accessed on March 17, 2023.

[2] Sam Roggeveen, “Democracy vs autocracy: Biden’s “inflection point”, Lowy Institute, February 23, 2021, https://www.lowyinstitute.org/the-interpreter/democracy-vs-autocracy-biden-s-inflection-point. Accessed on March 17, 2023.

[3] “Xi to Biden: Knock off the democracy vs. autocracy talk”, Reuters, November 15, 2021, https://www.reuters.com/world/asia-pacific/xi-biden-knock-off-democracy-vs-autocracy-talk-2022-11-14/. Accessed on March 17, 2023.

[4] “Full text of Xi Jinping’s keynote address at the CPC in Dialogue with World Political Parties High-level Meeting”, n. 1.

[5] Ibid.

[6] “Work together to paint a new picture of the modernization of human society”, Xinhua, March 16, 2023, http://paper.people.com.cn/rmrb/html/2023-03/16/nw.D110000renmrb_20230316_2-02.htm?utm_source=substack&utm_medium=email. Accessed on March 17, 2023.

[7] “ Full text of Xi Jinping’s keynote address at the CPC in Dialogue with World Political Parties High-level Meeting”, n. 1

[8] Ibid.

[9] “Work together to paint a new picture of the modernization of human society”, n. 6.

[10] Ibid.

[11] “Xi proposes Global Civilization Initiative, stressing inclusiveness”, Global Times, March 15, 2023, https://www.globaltimes.cn/page/202303/1287326.shtml. Accessed on March 17, 2023.

[12] “President Xi moots Global Civilisation Initiative at world political parties meet held by CPC”, Telegraph, March 15, 2023, https://www.telegraphindia.com/world/president-xi-moots-global-civilisation-initiative-at-world-political-parties-meet-held-by-communist-party-of-china/cid/1922765. Accessed on March 17, 2023.

[13] Jonathan Cheng, “China Is Starting to Act Like a Global Power: Beijing grows bolder in challenging the U.S.-led global order”, The Wall Street Journal, March 22, 2023, https://www.wsj.com/articles/china-has-a-new-vision-for-itself-global-power-da8dc559. Accessed on March 29, 2023.

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Author: Vedant Saigal, Research Associate, Centre for Air Power Studies
12 April 2023

Keywords: Drug Smuggling, Golden Triangle, Golden Crescent, Drug-Drones, Border Security, Anti-Drone Systems, Border Surveillance

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Keywords: Solar UAV, Solar energy, MARAAL

In recent years, unmanned aerial vehicles (UAV) have seen an increase in their use in a variety of applications, including those used by the military and those utilised by the wider populace. In fields such as precision agriculture, remote sensing, environmental monitoring, and disaster relief operations, UAVs have proven to be extremely useful. They can now offer increased levels of security and convenience for tasks that previously required the presence of a human pilot. There is a natural tendency to make the systems more flexible and resilient in terms of their capabilities whenever there is a growth in the number of uses for the technology.[1] The concept of drones was only a dream not too long ago; today, however, technology has advanced to new heights, much like solar power has.

In September 2022, China successfully tested its first solar powered UAV. This UAV has the ability to remain in the air for months at a time and can even operate as a satellite if necessary. According to a tweet from a Chinese official, the Qimingxing-50 has successfully completed its first flight, making it the first large-sized UAV to be solely powered by solar energy.[2]

Using UAV as a Substitute for a Satellite

The Chinese UAV’s name translates to ‘Morning Star-50’ in English. Due to its ability to maintain flight for an extended period of time, one of its potential applications is as a satellite. It can operate at a height of 20 km above the surface of the earth continuously for an extended period of time because, like satellites, it is completely electric-driven and powered by solar energy. In some circles, it is also known as a ‘High Altitude Platform Stations,’ while others call it a ‘pseudo satellite.’ It is possible to make use of it in situations where satellite services are either unavailable or disrupted. In addition, according to the report, the overall cost of using this UAV is much lower. Its operation is much simpler than that of putting a satellite into orbit, which can be quite expensive and complicated.

Competing Nations

Both the United States and the United Kingdom have already developed solar-powered drones that are able to travel a distance of 20 km into the atmosphere. The United States Army participated in the testing of a solar-powered, near-space drone called Airbus Zephyr S in July 2022. The drone remained in the sky for 64 consecutive days before it crashed in Arizona.[3] At the beginning of 2019, a high-altitude pseudo-satellite called ‘Hawk30’ was created for the purpose of high-altitude communications. It was successful in completing its test flights. It is an upgraded version of the Pathfinder and Helios missions flown by NASA.[4]

Significance of Solar-Drones

In comparison to rotary-based UAVs, which produce lift by means of sets of blades, fixed-wing UAVs, which produce lift by means of a wing, are believed to have a greater capacity for endurance. In a fixed wing UAV, the majority of the power consumed goes towards fighting the drag, while the lift is produced by the flow that goes over the wings. As a result, in comparison to rotary-wing aircraft, fixed-wing aircraft are more fuel-efficient and have the capacity to transport a greater payload. Yet, due to the fixed energy stores that an aircraft takes with it in the form of battery packs and/or fuel, there’s a limit to the amount of time that an aircraft may remain airborne. Because of this, the technology to harvest energy while the aeroplane is in motion is currently being developed. Solar energy as a source of propulsion for aeroplanes is quickly becoming one of the most viable options. It is possible for an aircraft to have a long-endurance capability, particularly in the extreme form of continuous flight over multiple days, sometimes known as perpetual endurance, if it has been carefully constructed and appropriate environmental conditions have been met.[5]

Following the inaugural flight of a solar-powered aircraft on November 4, 1974, we have come a long way. The most recent example of this is the attempt by Switzerland based Solar Impulse to fly around the world in an aircraft that has a wingspan of 72 metres and weighs 2,300 kg.[6] It has applications in the fields of aeronautical engineering, new materials research, and renewable sources of energy.

Therefore, despite the fact that a significant amount of progress has been made in the High-Altitude-Long-Endurance (HALE) class of solar-powered aircraft with large wingspans (above 20 metres), a significant amount of progress is still required in the Low-Altitude Long-Endurance (LALE) class. Notable attempts include the SoLong UAV developed by AC Propulsion, which flew continuously for 48 hours while looking for updrafts; the 3.2-meter-wingspan Sky-Sailor, which flew for 27 hours while using updrafts; and most recently, the Atlantik Solar, a UAV with a 5.6-meter-wingspan that was developed for search and rescue (SAR) operations.

Irradiance of the Sun

The effectiveness of a solar UAV that is heavily dependent on the degree to which the system is optimised to make use of the sun’s rays. In this light, it was essential to study the solar radiance that is accessible at the site of operations. The solar constant, abbreviated as GC, is the amount of energy obtained from the sun on a unit area of the surface that is perpendicular to the direction of propagation of the radiation when measured at the mean distance between the earth and the sun, which is one astronomical unit (AU), and when there is no atmosphere present.

Solar Cells

Solar cells, also known as photovoltaic cells, are devices that use the photovoltaic effect to convert solar energy into electrical energy. Another name for solar cells is photovoltaic cells. Space applications make extensive use of solar panels because they provide a source of energy that is both clean and reliable for long periods of time and requires almost no maintenance. Solar cells can have anywhere from one to several layers, each of which is composed of a different semiconducting material. Silicon is the most common material used because it is the second most abundant element in the earth’s crust, making it relatively inexpensive. Drone technology isn’t limited to the study of how to attach solar panels to flying machines. Solar power is also being considered by businesses as a means of charging conventional drone fleets. US-based Envision Solar is one of the companies working on a charging product through solar.[7]

Advantages

Solar drones are UAVs that get their power from the sun rather than batteries. There are a number of benefits to using them.[8] A few of them are:

• • Economical: By harnessing clean solar power instead of expensive grid electricity, solar-powered drones can cut down on the costs of drone-delivered missions.

  • Better Endurance: The increased distance and time that solar-powered drones may spend in the air before needing to come home to recharge or refuel. For certain solar-powered drones, that means years in the air.

  • Weather Updates: Hurricanes, bad weather, an impending storm, and tsunami warning tracking are all possible uses for solar-powered drones, which can soar far above ground level.

  • Disaster Relief: Solar-powered UAVs can locate survivors, assess the damage, and access inaccessible locations.

Disadvantages

There are a number of issues associated with flying solar drones. A few are appended below:

• • Connectivity Issues: Long-term drone flight presents a number of challenges, including the potential for the drone to lose connection with the controller.

  • Battery Life: Solar drones can only fly when exposed to sufficient sunshine. Night time and overcast conditions may reduce their flying time or require them to use backup batteries.

  • Weight and Efficiency: To achieve their full potential, solar-powered UAVs must be equipped with solar cells. These solar cells, however, may be heavy, expensive, or in short supply. Smaller batteries mean limited flight hours.

  • Space Constraints: Most of the drones likely won’t have enough room for solar panels and backup batteries. So it could have an effect on payload capacity as well as space management.

Indian Solar-Drone: MARAAL 

MARAAL is a series of solar-powered UAVs that were developed in India by the aerospace department of IIT Kanpur. These are multipurpose UAVs primarily focused on defence requirements.^[9]

Trial Details

Every single flight test was conducted on an airstrip that is a part of IIT Kanpur. During the subsequent flights, the autopilot was put through its paces, and its settings were fine-tuned in order to achieve the best possible performance in terms of path following and power consumption. The flight only took place during the day and involved a simulation of an earlier take-off. The pilot was instructed to climb at a constant rate of 0.05 metres per second after the aircraft was given the command to take off at 0930 IST with nearly depleted batteries. It was determined that a velocity of 15 metres per second would provide the autopilot with the optimal amount of command input for low-power flight. The amount of power that was used by the system, the amount of power generated by the solar cells, and the status of the battery charging were all monitored. When the power being generated was less than the power required by the system, the throttle was cut off, and the pilot was given the instruction to glide the aircraft while maintaining a sink rate of 0.15 metres per second. During this time, the power that was generated was put to use by charging the batteries continuously. This was stopped at an altitude of 100 metres, where the aircraft was given instructions to slow the rate of descent while increasing the throttle in order to fully charge the batteries before landing. The aircraft made a safe landing at 1800 IST with a battery that was completely charged. It demonstrated an endurance of 8 hours and 30 minutes.

Present Status

There have been some exciting new developments in solar-powered drone technology in India recently. Garuda Aerospace, a start-up based in Chennai, has developed a solar-powered drone called ‘SURAJ’. It is an ISR (intelligence, surveillance, reconnaissance) high-altitude drone created for surveillance operations, with the express purpose of providing real-time information to the high command and protecting jawans on the ground. It debuted at the Aero India 2023 convention in Bengaluru.  It can carry 10 kg, fly at an altitude of 3,000 feet, and have a 12-hour flight time.[10] ‘Infinity’ is a solar-powered surveillance drone created by Hyderabad-based start-up New Space Research and Technologies in partnership with Hindustan Aeronautics Limited (HAL). It can stay in the air for up to 90 days at an altitude of 65,000 feet, where it can spy on enemies.[11] Nagpur based Solar Industries prepared solar-powered drones that are equipped to carry explosives and launch autonomous or remote attacks on targets. The Indian government asserts that these are the country’s first entirely homegrown weaponised drones and loitering munitions.[12]

Conclusion

Solar-powered aircraft is a new product in the growing drone industry. Drones have many recreational uses, such as videography, aerial photography, and even drone racing, but they also have serious commercial and military applications. Commercial or military drones often struggle with range because of their inability to keep their batteries charged for extended periods of time. That’s why scientists are investigating the feasibility of using solar energy to power flying drones and entire drone fleets. The technology of solar drones will strengthen the defences of nations, both in outer space and at sea. The advancements in solar-powered drone technology in India are examples of the promising future of solar energy in defence and national security. A military commander can plan an offensive mission, respond to developing tactical threats, and choose effective countermeasures with the help of real-time ISR data provided by a solar powered drones. Indian development in the field of solar drones is heartening. Relevant research and development with consistent efforts and design changes may be introduced for enhancement of the widening exploitation. State-of-the-art solar demands will be able to contribute to op-preparedness.

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Notes:

[1] Vijay Dwivedi, Jay Patrikar, Amulya Addamane and A.K. Ghosh, “MARAAL: A Low Altitude Long Endurance Solar Powered UAV For Surveillance and Mapping Applications”, Research Gate, August 2018,  https://www.researchgate.net/publication/328240765_ MARAAL_A_ Low_ Altitude_Long_Endurance_Solar_Powered_UAV_For_Surveillance_and_Mapping_Applications#fullTextFileContent.  Accessed on April 5, 2023.

[2] Rahul Singh and Sunil Kumar, “China’s first solar-powered drone can also act as a satellite: Report”, Hindustan Times, September 09, 2022, https://www.hindustantimes.com/technology/chinas-first-solar-powered-drone-can-also-act-as-a-satellite-report-101662702129579.html. Accessed on April 5, 2023.

[3] Ibid.

[4] Ibid.

[5] P. Oettershagen et al., “A solar powered handlaunchable UAV for low altitude multiday continuous flight,” Roboticsand Automation (ICRA), IEEE International conference, 3986-3993,2015. https://www.researchgate.net/ publication/283096787_A_solar-powered_hand-launchable_UAV_for_low-altitude_multi-day_continuous _flight. Accessed on April 5, 2023. INCORRECT LINK

[6] H. Ross, “Fly around the world with a solar powered airplane,” ResearchGate, September 1, 2008, https://www.researchgate.net/publication/228843407_Fly_Around_the_World_with_a_Solar_Powered_Airplane. Accessed on April 5, 2023.

[7] Kerry Thoubboron , “Solar drones: what you need to know”, Energy Sage, August 17, 2018, https://news.energysage.com/solar-drones-what-you-need-to-know/. Accessed on April 5, 2023.

[8] Kevin Laurent, “Solar Powered Drones: Benefits And Drawbacks”, Greenshine New Energy,  April 23, 2014, https://greenshinesolar.wordpress.com/2014/04/23/solar-powered-drones-benefits-and-drawbacks/. Accessed on April 5, 2023.

[9] Dwivedi, n.1

[10] “Aero India: Solar-powered drone SURAJ designed for surveillance operations unveiled”, Economic Times, February 15, 2023, https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/news/defence/aero-india-solar-powered-drone-suraj-designed-for-surveillance-operations-unveiled/articleshow/97946408.cms. Accessed on April 5, 2023.

[11] Inder Singh Bisht, “Indian Solar Drone to Fly at 65,000 Feet for 90 Days, Monitor Enemy Targets”, The Defense Post, February 5, 2021, https://www.thedefensepost.com/2021/02/05/india-solar-drone-infinity/. Accessed on April 5, 2023.

[12] “Solar Industries Becomes First Indian Company To Make Fully Indigenous Weaponised Drones And Loitering Munitions’, Bharat Shakti, November 15, 2021, https://bharatshakti.in/solar-industries-become-first-indian-company-to-make-fully-indigenous-weponised-drones-loitering-munitions/. Accessed on April 5, 2023.

(Disclaimer: The views and opinions expressed in this article are those of the author and do not necessarily reflect the position of the Centre for Air Power Studies [CAPS])

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Keywords: Chinese Vision, Common Security, Cooperation, Peace and Multilateralism.

Background

With the growing strategic competition between the US and China, they continue to blame each other and view each other as a threat and destabilising force to the global order. The push to strengthen their capabilities to have the upper hand and address their respective security concerns has impacted global politics. Therefore, security is close to Chinese policymaking, and securing it is vital. This approach is reflected in President Xi Jinping’s vision of a ‘Chinese Dream.’ Such a Chinese approach, viewed as ‘securitisation of everything’ under Xi Jinping’s leadership, will shape China’s behaviour both on the domestic and international fronts beyond Xi’s tenure.[1] Echoing the security vision, China released a concept paper on February 21, 2023, on the Global Security Initiative (GSI), which was announced in April 2022.

China believes there is a need to address the growing geopolitical concerns, challenges, and risks the world is facing. China views the US as a declining belligerent power whose actions have emerged as a global security risk to the world. The concept paper, according to China, attempts to address such issues and provide a platform to achieve global security based on a joint approach, shared benefits, and win-win formula.[2] The concept paper conceives a futuristic vision as a guiding principle to achieve common security. It further advocates UN-centred multilateralism and wants major nations to have positive interactions and greater responsibility to safeguard global peace.

China’s Global Security Initiative and its Concept Paper

With the West and China at loggerheads in the Indo-Pacific region, the region continues to be impacted. The region is visible in the region’s security architecture as China opposes the rise of new blocs and groups like AUKUS or QUAD. Such circumstances push China to counter the West’s Indo-Pacific strategy via GSI and secure its indivisible security, as highlighted by the concept paper to secure the Chinese security vision. As China opposes the wanton use of unilateral sanctions, the US has turned a regional issue into a global crisis. This is reflected in the case of the Russia-Ukraine War.

Xi Jinping envisages a community where nations will have a common security vision, overcome their differences, and restrict themselves from interfering in each other’s internal affairs. Further, China believes that nations must respect other nations’ sovereignty, territorial integrity, and developmental paths. Therefore, GSI promotes equal access and inclusiveness, which will be based on mutual respect and build a world of universal security at bilateral and multilateral levels.[3]

Xi Jinping stresses that the GSI will resolve the growing security dilemma by promoting common, comprehensive, and sustainable security to uphold indivisible security principles. On the other hand, such an approach will place China at the centre of agenda-setting and enhance its position and power to dictate the rules of engagement in the Indo-Pacific region.[4] With the UN at the centre of China’s vision of global security under the GSI, the initiative promotes dialogue and the joint pursuit of a political solution to a crisis. Also, it covers non-traditional challenges like pandemics, outer space, cyberspace, maritime security, etc.

It is evident from Chinese actions, policies, and papers that the Chinese approach to regional security policy continues to evolve. In its 2017 White Paper, China’s State Council Information Office, emphasised improvements and upgrades to existing mechanisms of the present global order. Under GSI, China shall retain these features as they benefit their strategic and national interests.

Xi Jinping  is calling upon nations to pursue the cause of the common good, engage in cooperation, pursue mutual benefits, and live in harmony. China argues that Xi Jinping’s vision will ensure sustained prosperity for all and guaranteed security to make the world a safer place.[5] However, the West argues the initiative will instead provide an alternative to the current regional security architecture as it runs counter to the current US alliance and partnership system in the Indo-Pacific region.

China aims to bring all of China’s security-related concerns under the GSI umbrella. Its development could be traced back to former Chinese President Hu Jintao’s report to the 2012 Party Congress. The report talks about the ‘community of common security.’ Since then, China has been working carefully to lay down the fundamental principles for constructing a new Asian and global order.[6]

Under the GSI, Xi Jinping emphasises partnership over alliance. China argues that this will address questions like why the world needs a new security concept and how nations can achieve common security as the world goes through strategic competition.[7] The concept paper expounds on GIS’s core idea and principle and demonstrates China’s role and responsibility to safeguard world peace and defend global security. The concept paper further states that the major issues of conflict between nations should be resolved through dialogue to facilitate peace. In this regard, the concept paper wants the UN to play a bigger role in preventing war and ensuring peace instead of encouraging any bullying or domineering practices. The concept paper pushes for cooperation, equality, and the rule of law.

As the initiative is supported by more than 80 nations, China views it as an important development that will resolve the dispute through dialogue. China continues to push GSI, like the way it promoted and expanded the BRI. This has become a matter of concern for the US. For China, security and development are interlinked with global security. They argue that there is a need for China to enhance its responsibility and its determination to safeguard world peace for China to rise.[8] Thus, the concept paper has highlighted those international organisations in Asia that are Chinese-led and don’t include the US, giving China a dominant position in Asia.[9]

The US and Japan, as they view the GSI as a counter to the rules-based international system and states the Chinese response to the Russia-Ukraine conflict reflects their ambiguity, which runs counter to the GSI.[10] They argue that China is using GSI to weave its worldview into the international security discourse, strengthen its global ambition, and gain a strategic advantage over smaller nations. It will increase China’s support base, impacting the rules of engagement in the Indo-Pacific region, which they see as a destabilising force.

Conclusion

The release of the concept paper highlights the fact that the US-China security competition will expand in the coming years. China will continue to elaborate a security vision suited to its interests. However, Qing Gang, the newly appointed Chinese Foreign Minister, argues that the GSI is rooted in traditional Chinese culture, which values peace. Further, Xi Jinping expressed that there is a need for a nation to adapt to the changing international landscape and address the issue with a win-win mindset. On the other hand, the West argues that the concept paper has failed to mention the scope of NATO under multilateralism. With the ambiguous stand and response of China to the Russia-Ukraine war, China intends to secure its vested interests. China’s welcoming attitude for all to join the initiative while infusing it with hyperbole like BRI has got West and its allies concerned. The West should strategies its response accordingly to ensure that the current global order is maintained and counter China’s stepping up approach to enhance its global role and position and support towards Russia.

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Notes:-

[1] Katja Drinhausen and Helena Legarda, ““Comprehensive National Security” unleashed: How Xi’s approach shapes China’s policies at home and abroad”, MERICS, September 15, 2022, https://www.merics.org/en/report/comprehensive-national-security-unleashed-how-xis-approach-shapes-chinas-policies-home-and. Accessed on March 06, 2023.

[2] Wang Yunsong and Bao Han, “Global Security Initiative offers China’s solution to safeguarding global security and peace”, China Daily, June 07, 2022, https://global.chinadaily.com.cn/a/202206/07/WS629f03d1a310fd2b29e61335.html. Accessed on March 06, 2023.

[3] John S. Van Oudenaren, “The Global Security Initiative: China Outlines a New Security Architecture”, The Jamestown Foundation, March 03, 2023, https://jamestown.org/program/the-global-security-initiative-china-outlines-a-new-security-architecture/. Accessed on March 13, 2023.

[4] Shibani Mehta and Saheb Singh Chadha, “China’s Global Security Initiative Is a Bid to Dictate the Rules of Engagement”, Carnegie India, June 16, 2022, https://carnegieindia.org/2022/06/16/china-s-global-security-initiative-is-bid-to-dictate-rules-of-engagement-pub-87340. Accessed on March 06, 2023.

[5] Pak Yiu, “China’s Global Security Initiative: Xi’s wedge in the U.S.-led order”, Nikkei Asia, November 01, 2022, https://asia.nikkei.com/Spotlight/Asia-Insight/China-s-Global-Security-Initiative-Xi-s-wedge-in-the-U.S.-led-order. Accessed on March 06, 2023.

[6] Ibid.

[7] “Qin Gang Delivers Keynote Speech at the Opening Ceremony of the Lanting Forum Themed “The Global Security Initiative: China’s Proposal for Solving Security Challenges””, Embassy of the People’s Republic of China in the Republic of Trinidad and Tobago, February 21, 2023, http://tt.china-embassy.gov.cn/eng/zgxw/202302/t20230223_11030195.htm. Accessed on March 06, 2023.

[8] Ibid.

[9] Denny Roy, “Global Security rules would bind world, not China”, Asia Times, February 24, 2023, https://asiatimes.com/2023/02/global-security-rules-would-bind-world-not-china/. Accessed on March 13, 2023.

[10] James Palmer, “Is China Stepping Up Its Support for Russia?”, Foreign Policy, February 22, 2023, https://foreignpolicy.com/2023/02/22/china-russia-ukraine-support-wang-yi-lethal-aid/. Accessed on March 13, 2023.

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Keywords: India, Japan, Indo-Pacific, Kishida.

Japanese Prime Minister Fumio Kishida made his second visit to India on March 20 for the bilateral summit meeting with Prime Minister Narendra Modi.^[1] This year holds great significance for bilateral relations between the two nations, as India holds the G20 presidency and Japan holds the G7 presidency. India and Japan also completed 70 years of their friendship ties in 2022 and deliberated on delving deeper into their ‘Special Strategic and Global Partnership.’ As it was PM Modi’s turn to visit Japan, this visit by the Japanese PM was quite unexpected. This visit is seen by many as covering up for Japanese Foreign Minister Hayashi Yoshimasa’s absence from the G20 Foreign Ministers meeting.

Kishida and Modi widely discussed issues revolving around the Ukraine crisis and the scope for collaboration between India’s G20 presidency and Japan’s G7 presidency. Both leaders also agreed on the importance of the ‘Global South’ in this process. Japan is also aiming to focus on the rule of law as the fundamental agenda in the G7 summit this year, which is also premised on Russia’s invasion of Ukraine. PM Kishida invited PM Modi to the G7 meeting to be held in May. Australia’s Prime Minister Anthony Albanese also visited India before Kishida’s visit to comprehend India’s trajectory in its ties with Australia. Kishida’s visit also shows that he wishes to see how Japan can fit in between India-Australia ties to further the vision of the Indo-Pacific and the Quad.

Boosting Economic Ties

Since the economic partnership between India and Japan has been the main pillar ever since their ties got a boost, the two leaders have emphasised strengthening and enhancing it. Both nations signed an agreement with the Japan International Cooperation Agency (JICA) worth ¥300 billion for the Mumbai-Ahmedabad high-speed rail. The progress on this project has been scrutinised.^[2] Trade, too, has increased manifold between the two nations, from US $15.7 billion in 2017-18 to US $20.5 billion in 2021-22.^[3] The two leaders also discussed cooperation in areas of the digital economy and supply chain concerns. Last year, in 2022, when PM Kishida visited India, he set a target for Japanese investment of ¥5 trillion in India over the next five years. The two leaders also aimed to focus on food security, as Russian invasion of Ukraine impacted food access everywhere.

Indo-Pacific Strategy

Japan also wishes to work towards integrating northeast India with southeast Asia under its vision of a ‘free and open Indo-Pacific’ (FOIP). Japan has invested tremendously via its Overseas Development Assistance in infrastructure development to enable further connectivity, which looks beyond northeast India to include Nepal, Bhutan, and Bangladesh. Japan also aims to promote the ‘Bay of Bengal Northeast India Industrial Value Chain Concept’ with the cooperation of India and Bangladesh.^[4] Japan is also aiming to further this cooperation with Bangladesh by exploring an economic partnership agreement.

A major highlight of Kishida’s visit was that he laid out a new plan for Japan’s Indo-Pacific region. He pointed out four new pillars as areas of cooperation for a free and open Indo-Pacific:

• • Principles for peace and rules for prosperity

  • Attempting to address challenges in an Indo-Pacific way

  • Focusing on multi-layered connectivity

  • Making efforts for safe and secure use of the sea to the air

Kishida emphasised that the new plan aims to oppose the use of force, defend the rule of law, and create connectivity opportunities. Kishida said, “‘Our FOIP’ needs to be undertaken together with various countries and stakeholders. Japan will strengthen coordination with the US, Australia, South Korea, Canada, Europe and elsewhere. Of course, India is indispensable.”^[5] Kishida also announced that Japan would spend around US $2 billion in the next three years to help Indo-Pacific nations with proper equipment, such as patrol boats, and train their personnel to increase maritime law enforcement capabilities. The new Indo-Pacific strategy would also include green initiatives and economic security. India remains a vital partner in Japan’s new Indo-Pacific plan as well, and it is also seen as Japan’s bid to forge stronger ties with countries in south and southeast Asia to counter China’s aggressive moves in the region. Kishida also pledged US $75 billion to the Indo-Pacific region by 2030 through ‘Yen loans’ and emphasised ramping up aid through government grants.^[6]

Both leaders also discussed the challenges faced by China’s aggressive behaviour and agreed that India and Japan would cooperate with other like-minded countries to address such challenges and ensure a free and open Indo-Pacific. India and Japan are focusing on enhancing their defence cooperation to counter Beijing’s assertiveness in the region. Both nations recently conducted their first joint air exercise between fighter aircraft of Japan’s air self-defence force and the Indian Air Force, known as ‘Veer Guardian 2023.’ Such regular bilateral training and military exercises would help deepen security and defence cooperation between India and Japan. Countering China’s assertiveness has become essential for both nations, as Japan’s new Indo-Pacific plan has come at a time when tensions are rising between China and Japan over the territorial dispute over the Senkaku Islands in the East China Sea. China’s territorial claims thus remain a challenge for both India and Japan. Japan has also begun working on countermeasures as a response to China’s bullying tactics in the region. The whole of Southeast Asia is also concerned with China’s territorial claims as, like Japan, they also face threats from North Korea’s missile and nuclear development.

The fundamental aim behind India-Japan cooperation is stabilising the Indo-Pacific region by focusing on controlling China’s behaviour. An increase in Japan’s defence expenditure would provide Japan with new military power in the region, which would in turn be beneficial for India-Japan security ties in countering China’s moves in the region. It is interesting to see how both India and Japan cooperate while holding their presidencies at the G20 and G7, respectively.

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Notes:-

[1] Gurjit Singh, ‘Fumio Kishida’s India visit: Personal invite to Narendra Modi for G7 Summit in Hiroshima boosts India’s global stature,’ First Post, March 23, 2023, https://www.firstpost.com/opinion/fumio-kishidas-india-visit-personal-invite-to-narendra-modi-for-g7-summit-in-hiroshima-boosts-indias-global-stature-12336512.html. Accessed on March 27, 2023

[2] “JICA signs grant agreement of 4 billion Yen (INR 250 crores approx.) with the Government of India for the ‘Project for the Improvement of Power Supply in Andaman and Nicobar Islands’,” Japan International Cooperation Agency, March 30, 2022, https://www.jica.go.jp/india/english/office/topics/press220330.html. Accessed on March 28, 2023

[3] “Japan-India relations,” Invest India, https://www.investindia.gov.in/country/japan-plus. Accessed on March 29, 2023

[4] “Japan to promote Bay of Bengal-NE India industrial value chain concept in cooperation with India and Bangladesh : Prime Minister Fumio Kishida,” DD News, March 21, 2023, https://ddnews.gov.in/international/japan-promote-bay-bengal-ne-india-industrial-value-chain-concept-cooperation-india-and. Accessed on March 30, 2023

[5] Rezaul H Laskar, “Japanese PM Fumio Kishida, Modi discuss ties, Indo-Pacific plan,” Hindustan Times, March 21, 2023, https://www.hindustantimes.com/india-news/kishida-modi-discuss-ties-indo-pacific-plan-101679337933001.html. Accessed on March 30, 2023

[6] Kiran Sharma, “Kishida pledges $75bn for Indo-Pacific infrastructure on India trip,” Nikkei Asia, March 20, 2023, https://asia.nikkei.com/Politics/International-relations/Kishida-pledges-75bn-for-Indo-Pacific-infrastructure-on-India-trip. Accessed on March 30, 2023

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