Keywords: Indian Air Force, History, Aviation, Mig-23, Mig-27, Kargil War, Siachen Glacier, Air Force, Leh, Thoise

Author’s note: This is a story told by the veterans- through their memories, logbooks, and writings. India’s first night-heliborne operation, deep behind enemy lines, unfolds through the voices of those who fought the war and dared the impossible. What was it like to fly into a storm of bullets, to navigate the pitch black without GPS, or to attempt what none had before? Today, we see the Battle of Sylhet through the eyes of its air warriors. Let the journey begin.

December 8, 1971

Undisclosed location in Kulaura/Kalura, inside enemy territory

They stood there, waiting. Biding time.

Anxious. Determined. Darkness had started crawling over their skin. The waiting men, mostly Gorkhas, stood huddled- their silhouettes flickering in the dim light of a dying sun. An eerie anticipation creeping up their spines. Their warm hands, grazing the rifles’ cold metal.

They stood there, waiting. Anytime now.

And then they heard it. The throbbing roar- ripping the silent, cold air. Pulsating, rumbling waves. Behind them, in the far-off darkness, engines growled and rotors screamed. The mechanical beasts had come to life. And they were approaching the Gorkhas. The Mi-4s. The giant Indian Air Force choppers… Awakening to life, in the dark of the night. Coming to take the men- to the raging battlegrounds of Sylhet.

*********************

December, 1971

The town of Kailashahar. Ancient, quaint- nestled in Tripura’s guarding mountains. The airfield here had laid dead for years.[1] [2] Remote, with no infrastructure[3]– ghostly winds murmuring stories of silence as they swept over it. But then, the war of 1971 happened and the Indian Air Force raised it from the dead. Owing to its proximity to Bangladesh or East Pakistan, as it was called then; the once-abandoned airstrip was now back in action. Despite the lack of resources, the IAF’s men and machines adapted to what bare minimum lay there and catapulted themselves into action.[4] [5]

In the middle of this action were the 110 helicopter unit (commanded by Sqn Ldr Charanjit Singh Sandhu)[6] and 105 helicopter unit (commanded by Sqn Ldr Pran Nath Chhabra)[7], wielding the rugged Soviet-built high payload birds- the Mi-4. Stalin’s men had created this beast to counter the American S-55 helicopters during the Cold War era.[8] Soon, the Mi-4 was making its mark. From being the world’s first helicopter to receive hydraulic booster flight control assistance to setting several new helicopter world records including flying at 187 km/h and lifting 2,000 kg to a height of 6,018 m[9]– the Mi-4 packed aggression and loyalty for its pilots.

The NATO forces codenamed it- the Hound[10]

The Hound found its way into the Indian Air Force’s helicopter fleet in the early 1960s.[11] With wild theories of diplomatic ploy and a cloak-and-dagger military deal trailing its acquisition.

The year was 1959, and the Soviets had let slip- perhaps mistakenly, perhaps on purpose- a hint of discord with China over the Sino-Indian boundary issue. The Russians were favouring us. India saw the tremendous military cooperation possibilities brewing out of the situation and without missing a beat, signed a quick, covert deal for the purchase of the Mi-4s.[12] The first ten Mi-4s came wrapped under the garb of “road construction” machines for the Border Roads Organisation.[13] But by 1962, the Mi-4s had shed their innocent guise. The Hounds fought the Indo-China war and became IAF’s medium-lift workhorse. Built like a flying tank, the Mi-4 was versatile and could navigate treacherous terrain.[14]

Years later, in 1971, one brave General, with an audacious vision realised the power of the Indian Air Force’s helicopter fleet. Lieutenant General Sagat Singh’s request to use the Mi-4s for the Army’s troop transportation across the rivers and wetlands of East Pakistan, behind enemy lines, sent shock waves across the Army’s top brass.[15] [16] His bosses debated and pondered. But he wasn’t taking a ‘no’. It wasn’t an ask- it was a decision.

And so, the Indian Air Force pressed forward its assets. And the Mi-4s found themselves, once again, in the middle of a heated war with Pakistan.

December 3

East Pakistan, a maze of rivers and marshes- one of the hardest terrains to wage a war.[17] A natural defensive fortress for the deeply embedded Pakistani forces.[18] The East Pakistani rivers flowed with great power and any attempt to cross them via boats with the Pakistani defensive posts manning the shores was suicidal. Among them, the mighty Surma River guarded the city of Sylhet- one of the most critical Pakistani strongholds of the war- a keystone of East Pakistan’s northern defences.[19] Sylhet’s fall was crucial for the Indian Army to break Pakistan’s grip on the region and open the path to Dhaka.

Lieutenant General Niazi, the Commander of Pakistan’s Eastern Command; had designated ten key cities as ‘fortress towns’ and stationed most of his troops near the Indian border.[20] The plan was to delay Indian advances at the border, and then, retreat to these fortresses if the Indian offence became overbearing. Here, the Pakistanis were to defend until the last man and bullet. Niazi was confident that his strategy would turn the tides. In fact, in one of his interviews with foreign media, a confident Niazi gloated, “My troops in the border outposts are like the extended fingers of an open hand. They will fight there as long as possible before they fold back to the fortresses to form a fist to bash the enemy’s head.”[21]

Sylhet was one of these fortress towns. And it needed to be brought down. But, crossing the river Surma and reaching Sylhet in record time was unthinkable, unless it happened through the skies.

December 7

After Lt Gen Sagat Singh’s efforts bore fruit, the Indian Air Force was onboarded. The urgency to capture Sylhet coupled with a fleeting intel of Pakistan’s 202 Infantry Brigade withdrawing from the city, bolstered Sagat Singh’s hurried plans. Soon, the Special Heli-Borne Operation (SBHO) to drop an entire 4/5 Gorkha battalion into the town of Sylhet took flight.[22] At 0830 hours on 7th December, Group Captain Chandan Singh (commanding officer of the Jorhat Air Force Station, overseeing the Sylhet heli-drop) issued urgent orders. The 110 Helicopter Unit, equipped with its trusty Mi-4s, scrambled to the Kailashahar in Tripura at breakneck speed.[23] Gp Capt Singh himself, along with Sqn Ldr Charanjit Singh Sandhu, CO of 110 HU, flew off on a recce mission to zero in on the departure and the target helipad. The departure helipad from where the 4/5 Gorkha battalion was to be picked up was finalised as Kalura (present-day Kulaura), inside the East Pakistani/Bangladeshi territory. The target/dropping helipad was marked inside large cut paddy fields, a few kilometres away from the Sylhet railway station.[24]

The Mi-4s had been stripped down and modified for this mission. Clamshell doors were removed to make troop drops swift and efficient.[25] Each helicopter, most of the time, was to carry more than its prescribed payload capacity- stretching its capabilities beyond the brim.[26]

By 1500 hrs the same day, a Special Heli-Borne Operation or SHBO to conquer Sylhet was up and running.[27] The Air Force had jumped into the fray. East Pakistan’s fate had been sealed.

*********************

Flying Officer Mirza Murtuza Ali watched his technical crew dart around his helicopter, as he replayed the mission plan in his mind for the third time. Barely two years out of training, he was still a war rookie- one of the youngest pilots in 110’s line-up.

The first wave had been almost incidence-free. But, by the time the second wave came, it was met with a sudden, aggressive Pakistani offence. The Indian Air Force’s audacious manoeuvre behind the enemy lines had challenged the Pakistanis, and the skies had now become their hunting ground. The Mi-4s had held up admirably well so far. But no one knew what lay ahead.

1620 hrs. Time to Launch the Third Wave[28]

The sun began its slow descent. Shadows started dissolving into the dusk. Ali climbed into the cockpit, the cold air sharp and still around him. As he went through the checks, his mind wandered back to the initial briefing. “No Pakistani resistance as per Army reports,” they’d said. “Troops will be dropped without a hitch.” It had taken just one sortie to know the on-ground truth. The wave of 8 helicopters knew- they were flying right into the jaws of carnage.

Outside, the marshals gave the signal. Ali exchanged a sharp salute and opened up the throttle. The Mi-4 roared. The pulsating blade-vortex interaction radiating outwards as the blades sliced the air furiously. The hound conquered gravity and slowly rose through the air. As the machine flew obediently towards its fateful destination, the crew and the soldiers peered outside the window. Bracing for what was to come next.

Up amongst the grey, melancholy clouds, the December evening was cold and quiet. Those were the days without GPS. Paper maps, instincts, and memory guided the pilots of the eight Mi-4s over a landscape that looked bizarrely uniform from above. Forests blended into each other and rivers snaked endlessly- one stream flowing into the other and then another. Yet, the pilots held their course.

Soon, the landing zone came into view. The pilots, guided by their leader began their descent. Tall elephant grasses concealed the dusty landing pad. A perfect cover for the Pakistani defences as they lay in wait.

The eight Mi-4s loomed over the landing pad- like giant, magnanimous winged beasts, blocking out the last rays of the sun, casting apocalyptic shadows on the ground. The deafening sound of their rotors, splitting the air. Dust and grass exploded into the air, spiralling in frantic little tornadoes. Ali steadied the machine, his hands firm on the controls, his eyes scanning the chaos below.

They were right above their destination. Suddenly, the assault erupted. Bullets. Hundreds of them.[29]

Tracer rounds streaked across the sky. Hidden among the elephant grass, the Pakistani soldiers had started firing incessantly at the Mi-4s.

Earlier that morning, Gp Capt Chandan Singh’s recce chopper had given the Pakistanis just enough of a hint. They’d seen him scouting the landing zones, flying low and slow, studying the terrain. It didn’t take them long to connect the dots- something big was coming from the Indian side. Silently, they regrouped, pulling forces from other positions to fortify the recce points. The IAF pilots had no idea what they were really flying into.

The intel given to the pilots was wrong. The 202 Infantry Brigade hadn’t pulled out of Sylhet. It was very much there. In fact, joining it over the course of the ops were to be the 313 Inf Bde, parts of 31 Punjab, 30 FF, 22 Baluch, and a battalion each of Tochi, Khyber and Thal Scouts- supported by 171 Mortar Bty (120 mm) and 31 Fd Regt (105 mm).[30]

Despite the barrage of bullets rattling their fuselages, the Mi-4s fell into a pre-decided ‘line astern’ formation- like clockwork. Each helicopter would land in succession, one at a time, offloading its troops and taking off before the next came down. The rest tailed after, ready to replace their comrades as soon as the ground beneath was clear. It was a tactical manoeuvre designed to minimise damage and casualties.

Ali focused ahead, lining up his Mi-4 with the landing spot. And then, his eyes caught the unmistakable glow of tracer rounds rushing towards him. For a fleeting moment, the world seemed to slow. And then the impact happened. He could almost hear the bullets lodging themselves on the Mi-4’s body. But his hands didn’t falter. The training took over, drowning out the fear, and the Mi-4 touched down with a heavy thud.

The moment the wheels hit the ground, Gorkhas poured out in a blur of movement. One after the other, bolting from the chopper- at a frightening speed. Their boots pounding the earth as they fanned out, instantly dropping to crouches to avoid the bullet rain.

Ali’s mind was a storm- between keeping the chopper steady, watching the panels for any anomaly, observing the direction of assault and assessing the ground situation. At the back of his mind, the warning from the briefing flashed: “Do not lose sight of your flight path. Do not fly ahead. That’s enemy territory. Turn back at all costs.”

In seconds, the Mi-4 was empty, the Gorkhas were all gone. Without missing a beat, the flight engineer’s horn bellowed- sharp and urgent- signalling the pilots: troops offloaded, time to go. Snapping back into attention, Ali gripped the controls and pushed the throttle. The Mi-4 gave a slight jolt, as if responding to his master’s commands, nodding in agreement, and lifted off the ground. Continuing to take bullets but climbing up rapidly to join the formation heading back home.

High above the battlefield, another helicopter hovered, watching the battle unfold. A smaller bird, nimble and agile- offering an unbroken view of the assault below, through its wide dome-shaped windscreen. Peering out from this Alouette aircraft was Gp Capt Chandan Singh. Watching his men navigate the fearsome enemy fire, braving the deadly rain of bullets. All the helicopters carried bullet marks. One of them was so badly hit that most of its instruments had stopped functioning and it had a total electrical failure.[31]

As he flew back, he shot one last lingering look at the battlefield below. He had seen enough for the day. His jaw tightened as he made up his mind. Although the battle and heli-drops were not over, he was not going to sacrifice his men and machines like that. No. They were not going to return to this damned place at night.

*********************

Flying Officer Satish Chandra Sharma jumped out of the Mi-4 and hit the ground amidst heavy firing. The helicopters were barely 15 feet above the ground when the bullets started tearing through the air, shaking the machines. The pilot inside was barely keeping the helicopter together. He shouted over the storm of bullet fires, “Get out now! Jump! Jump!” Sharma, along with a dozen Gorkhas, leapt out in a flash and hit the dirt hard.

Attached to the 4/5 Gorkha battalion, his role as Forward Air Controller was critical- to coordinate air support and attacks[32], guide reinforcements, mark enemy positions and communicate the availability and safety of the designated landing pads to the friendly aircraft flying above using his RT set.[33] But for now, pinned down with Lieutenant Colonel Arun Bhimrao Harolikar, the Commanding Officer of the Gorkhas[34] and his men, survival was the only mission. The Pakistanis held the high ground- a deadly advantage.

With each passing moment, the Pakistani war cries of Allahu Akbar were getting closer. The enemy forces were closing in rapidly… preparing to charge. Sharma could see the faint glow of muzzle flashes growing bigger, marking their approach. Around him, soldiers cautiously crouched low in the elephant grass- some already injured and bleeding. And although the night was descending upon them rapidly, he was sure that the Mi-4s will bring back reinforcements- any time now. That is the hope he, they all, were clinging to. But the choppers didn’t come.

About 250 stranded soldiers scattered across the field, trapped under relentless enemy fire- outnumbered, outgunned, and surrounded.

The Pakistani soldiers were closing in fast. And the Indian soldiers had only two choices in front of them. A choice to surrender and probably get a shot at life. Or attack and possibly die, hoping that the next wave will keep up the battle.

Lt Col Harolikar looked at his troops, thought for a moment and took the decision.

“We attack. Before the Pakistanis come to us, we’ll take the fight to them.”

The plan was to crawl towards the enemy positions, in the cover of darkness, holding their fire to conserve ammunition and avoid detection. When close enough, they would unleash a surprise assault- khukris in hand, engaging the enemy in fierce close-quarter combat. Every soldier was to fight till his last breath.

The plan was relayed through whispers across the fanned-out men. And thus began their perilous crawl, slithering through the tall grass, towards the sparks of enemy fire.

As they reached their attacking spot, the Gorkhas let out their blood-curdling war cry- “Jai Mahakali, Ayo Gorkhali!” With that, they surged forward. With terrifying speed and fury. The enemy, caught off guard, barely had time to react before the Indians were upon them. The air erupted with screams, gunshots, and chaos.

Sharma charged along with the others, heart pounding in the chest. The battle was fierce and raw- demanding everything a soldier could give. But the Indians didn’t falter. Their ferocity overwhelmed the Pakistanis who broke ranks and fled.

Soon, the Indian soldiers had secured and taken over the Pakistani post- the first foothold in Sylhet.[35] Marking the beginning of a campaign that would soon cascade into the fall of Dhaka. But the night was far from over. The Gorkhas, although weak in numbers and tired, decided to spread out and continue with the attacks. Hoping that even if they fought and died, their comrades would come and avenge them.

*********************

Night had fallen. Back at Kailashahar, the Army and IAF were locked in a heated debate. A defiant Gp Capt Singh had refused to send any more of his aircraft and men into the dangerous war zone at night. He had seen the Pakistani attacks and was not willing to knowingly sacrifice his men in the dead of the night.[36] Brigadier C. A. Quinn, commander of the 59th Mountain Brigade had his tempers flaring.

Owing to the dearth of time and assuming it to be a continuous, non-stop operation till the entire battalion is heli-dropped; the Army had not fully planned the sequence of movement- on who would go first or what equipment should accompany them. Crucial supplies and vital signal equipment were left behind, leaving the troops already air-dropped into Sylhet cut off- stranded, with no way to call for help.[37]

After what seemed like an eternity, the two sides reached a consensus. Gp Capt Singh had a condition- only one aircraft would go in for the next drop. If it returned safely, only then would the rest follow.

To pull off this dangerous, high-stakes task- Gp Capt Singh turned to his trusted flight commander (operations manager)- Flight Lieutenant Pushp Vaid.[38] A seasoned pilot, managing the SHBO.

*********************

Around midnight, Flt Lt Vaid’s Mi-4 ascended into the pitch-black sky- loaded with equipment and personnel. During the day, Vaid knew the terrain well- its rivers, forests, and landmarks serving as his guides. But in the dark of the night, all these features had dissolved into nothingness. With no GPS and only a compass to help him- his instincts, experience, and a vague estimation of 20 minutes of flying time to Sylhet guided him towards the city. His boss Gp Capt Singh had cast doubts over his survival. But Vaid’s unwavering bravery had carried him this far.

As the Mi-4 approached Sylhet, an unexpected voice suddenly crackled over Vaid’s frequency: “This is Hell Cat. About time you guys came!” The voice was that of Fg Offr Sharma (codenamed Hell Cat) who was maintaining a constant vigil of the skies. The moment he heard Vaid’s helicopter, he broke into the frequency. Sharma informed Vaid that they had managed to bring the Pakistani post under their control but the stranded troops were running low on reinforcement and ammunition.

To guide Vaid’s helicopter to the landing area in the pitch-black night, he proposed lighting a fire. A Gorkha soldier volunteered to strike the flame. But as the fire sparked to life, the Pakistanis got alerted. Hundreds of tracer rounds zipped through the air like fiery arrows. The Gorkha was hit on the thumb but miraculously survived. Refusing evacuation, he shouted that he would rather hunt down the enemy who had wounded him.

As Vaid spotted the faint, flickering fire lit by the Indian troops, he flew right in that direction. Tracer rounds converged on him like moths on a burning flame. The Mi-4 shook under the onslaught but Vaid pressed on, undeterred, his focus locked on the landing pad. His instructions to his passenger troops were sharp: “Jump out with your equipment the moment we land. Otherwise, I’ll be shot down”. With enemy fire hammering from all sides, the Mi-4 touched down. Within 30 seconds, the soldiers had dashed out with their equipment and Vaid was ready to lift off. The helicopter clawed its way back into the sky, climbing rapidly, leaving the cacophony of destruction behind.

The radio at the Kailashahar Air Force base crackled to life. On the other end was Flt Lt Vaid, on his way back. As he narrated his miraculous trip, shocked murmurs rippled across the station. It was clear that the pitch black of the night had worked in the Mi-4’s favour. The Pakistanis had no visual lock on the helicopter and were firing blindly based on the sound. Hence, the lucky escape.

Odds were calculated, mission plans re-calibrated. And then, Flt Lt Vaid sent out the mission orders- a mission so ambitious it would tilt the war.

The Indian Air Force was going to execute India’s first-ever night heli-borne operation behind enemy lines.[39]

A daring attempt- with no manual, no playbook, no precedence.

Pitch-black skies, blacked-out terrain and enemy fire- flying the hulking Mi-4s in such a scenario was a deadly mission. If successful, the operation could change the course of the war.

*********************

December 8

A tense, all-consuming darkness threatened to bury the motley airstrip of the Kalashahar airfield. It was a cold December night and the Indian Air Force was about to launch an audaciously dangerous mission. For the first time ever in the history of IAF, a night heli-borne ops deep behind the enemy lines.

The faithful Mi-4s, the magnificent beasts, stood awaiting their masters’ orders.

The pilots opened their throttles. The rotors thudded louder, drowning out every other sound. As the helicopters flew into the sky, the world below vanished, cloaked by night’s shadows. An endless, suffocating darkness. Flying Officer Ali strained his eyes, seeking landmarks. The once familiar terrain- the trees, rivers- everything was now a faint outline, a dark blur.

And then, she came into view. The great river spreading out below. The Surma. Its meandering form breaking through the darkness, catching and reflecting the dainty shimmer of a weak moonlight. Its gushing waters guiding the Mi-4 fleet forward, in the right direction.

Inside the choppers, against the great rumbling of the rotor blades- the Gorkhas sat quietly. Ready to join their brothers. Braced for the unknown.

Far, far below, Fg Offr Sharma lay hidden with his stranded troops. They knew that the Pakistanis would hit back harder with reinforcements. But, Flt Lt Vaid’s daring sortie earlier had given them hope- their own reinforcements were on the way. Their eyes and ears attuned to the slightest sound from the sky. And then it happened.

Over the murmurs of ghost winds, Sharma heard it- the unmistakable thrum of the iron birds- getting louder. The Mi-4s were approaching. A whole wave! The loud, roaring beasts announcing their arrival.

A bolt of excitement ran through the troops and the Gorkhas dashed forward to light up goosenecks to signal their rescuers.

The guiding lights of the goosenecks flared to life. And from a few hundred metres above, from inside the cockpit, the pilots caught it almost instantly.

The Mi-4s had now crossed the line of engagement. Around 150 metres above ground, in the eerie cockpit darkness, faint wisps of instrument lights radiated off the pilots’ faces.

Suddenly, the sound of enemy gunfire tore through the sky- bullets rattled against the body of the Mi-4s. The Gorkhas on board remained still, their eyes scanning the ground. Their minds racing. Would the helicopter hold together? Their comrades on the ground were giving cover fire with whatever ammunition was left with them. But the enemy was coming down hard.

The Mi-4s pressed on- giant armoured birds cruising through the hailstorm of tracer bullets. Alighting themselves above the slowly dying gooseneck-lit landing pads.

The landing drill was the same. Get in a diagonally vertical line-like formation. Wait for the helicopter ahead of you to land, drop the load and take off first. Once it’s taken off, proceed to land. But as the lead chopper descended, the rotors’ downwash extinguished the gooseneck flames completely, plunging the landing zone into complete darkness.[40]

But the sky seemed to burn. The glowing trails of the tracer bullets raining down on the choppers. The incessant firing sent jolts of flashes into the sky- confounding, blinding. The enemy was on a rampage.

The pilots, guided by their training, saw through the darkness and the chaos. As each of them tuned out distractions and focussed on the top of the chopper ahead of them. The flashing, guiding beacons, perched atop the rotors of the helicopter in front of them were to be their guiding lights for landing now.

The pilots quickly adapted and aligned themselves to the rotor tip lights. The Mi-4s pushed on. Becoming one with the will and spirit of their pilots. One by one, the helicopters started descending- delivering the fearless Gorkhas into enemy territory. The soldiers rolled out swiftly, weapons at the ready, joining their brothers to hold the ground against the onslaught. The Air Force had created history.

Despite the enemy fire, the Mi-4s lifted off and returned- again and again. Meals, sleep and fear had become non-existent. That night, the five Mi-4s together executed 14 sorties, evacuating the injured and heli-dropping 124 troops and 2500 kg of equipment into the battlefield. The firing was on till the last sortie.[41]

By December 9th early morning, the relentless operation paid off. 649 soldiers, along with 13,000 kg of their load had been heli-dropped into Sylhet.[42] A fierce battle ensued. And just a battalion of the brave Gorkhas was able to hold back two Pakistani brigades in Sylhet- cutting off their retreat and deployment at Dhaka.

The critical heli-drop at Sylhet and the numerous other heli-bridge operations were amping up the fall of East Pakistan.[43]

Finally, on the 15th of December, the entire Sylhet garrison surrendered. Niazi’s fortress had fallen. But what stunned the world was the fact that over 8,000 troops (including three Brigadiers and two Colonels) from Pakistan surrendered to less than 550 personnel of the 4/5 Gorkhas![44]

The 1971 Indo-Pak war went on to become one of the shortest in history.[45] On the 16th of December, the world witnessed the largest military surrender since World War II. 93,000 Pakistani troops conceded to India.[56] And a new nation, Bangladesh, was born.[47]

As the surrender treaty was signed at the Ramna Race Course, the air warriors held their heads high. Carrying the pride of a job well done. Realising the history they had written for their nation.

The Mi-4s, the formidable iron birds earned their place as silent heroes of the 1971 war, ferrying soldiers across mighty rivers, great forests and into history itself- daring to land where others feared to tread.

And while this story of the forgotten heroes and their legendary machines may have faded from memory; the legacy of their courage continues to thrive on the pages of history- reminding the generations- that victory often rests on the wings of the fearless.

******

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Notes:

[1] Air Cmde C M Singla, “Kilo Flight and the Birth of the Bangladesh Air Force”, Colours of Glory, January 31, 2017, https://www.coloursofglory.org/kilo-flight-birth-bangladesh-air-force/. Accessed on September 29, 2024.

[2] Daily Sun, “The Month of Victory”, https://www.daily-sun.com/printversion/details/593676. Accessed on September 30, 2024.

[3] Air Cmde Nitin Sathe, “1971 War: A brave Dakota pilot’s contribution”, Rediff News, June 14, 2021, https://www.rediff.com/news/special/nineteen-seventy-one-war-a-brave-dakota-pilots-contribution/20210325.htm. Accessed on September 29, 2024.

[4] Ibid.

[5] Air Cmde Singla, n. 1, “Kilo Flight and the Birth of the Bangladesh Air Force”

[6] Bharat Rakshak, “No.110 Helicopter Unit Vanguards”, https://www.bharat-rakshak.com/indianairforce/database/units/list.php?qunit=110+HU. Accessed on November 7, 2024.

[7] Bharat Rakshak, “No.105 Helicopter Unit Daring Eagles”, https://www.bharat-rakshak.com/indianairforce/database/units/105+HU. Accessed on November 7, 2024.

[8] The Helicopter Museum, “MIL Mi-4 ‘Hound’”, https://helimuseum.com/heli.php?ident=mi-4. Accessed on November 14, 2024.

[9] Ibid.

[10] Encyclopedia Vertipedia, sub verbo (s.v.)*, s.v. “Mil Mi-4”, https://vertipedia.vtol.org/aircraft/getAircraft/aircraftID/461. Accessed on November 14, 2024.

[11] Indian Air Force Official Website, “Our Journey”, https://indianairforce.nic.in/history-timeline/. Accessed on November 15, 2024.

[12] Anchit Gupta, “The Accidental Fleet of the IAF”, #IAFHistory- Tales from Indian Skies by Anchit Gupta, March 27, 2024, https://iafhistory.in/2024/03/27/the-accidental-fleet-of-the-iaf/. Accessed on November 15, 2024.

[13]  Ibid.

[14] Finnish Air Force Museum, “Mil Mi-4 (HR-1)”, https://airforcemuseum.fi/museum%2520objects/mil-mi-4-hr-1/. Accessed on November 15, 2024.

[15] Rajesh Isser, “Sagat and Helicopters: True Pillars of Victory”, Manohar Parrikar Institute for Defence Studies and Analyses Journal of Defence Studies, Vol. 15, No. 4, 2021, pp. 161–179.

[16] Bhopinder Singh, “Not giving an inch”, Millenium Post, June 23, 2020, https://www.millenniumpost.in/opinion/not-giving-an-inch-410896. Accessed on November 16, 2024.

[17] History Division, Ministry of Defence, “History of Indo-Pak War,1971”, pp. 488-492.

[18] Ibid., pp. 501-505.

[19] Ibid.

[20] Lt. Gen. JFR Jacob, Surrender at Dacca: Birth of A Nation, (New Delhi: Manohar Publishers, 1997), p. 74.

[21] Siddiq Salik, Witness To Surrender, (Dhaka: The University Press, 2017), pp. 124-128. Available online at https://archive.org/details/508333740-witness-to-surrender-by-siddiq-salik-english/page/n3/mode/2up. Accessed on November 15, 2024, accessed on November 7, 2024.

[22] Major General Ian Cardozo, “The Battle for Sylhet”, Centre for Land Warfare Studies, March 27, 2024, https://www.claws.in/static/SW-Spring-2020_15_The-Battle-for-Sylhet.pdf. Accessed on September 29, 2024.

[23] Sqn Ldr Pushp Vaid, VrC, “Special Heli Borne Ops – Sylhet and Meghna”, Bharat Rakshak, July 21, 2020, https://www.bharat-rakshak.com/iaf/history/1971war/special-heli-borne-ops-east-pakistan/3/. Accessed on September 29, 2024.

[24] Ibid.

[25] Sq Ldr Pushp Vaid, “1971: Mi-4’s Thrilling Heli-Borne Heroics Unleashed!”, DefenceXP, July 22, 2023, https://www.defencexp.com/1971-mi-4s-thrilling-heli-borne-heroics-unleashed/. Accessed on November 1, 2024

[26] Vaid, n. 22.

[27]History Division, Ministry of Defence, “History of Indo-Pak War,1971”, p. 556.

[28] Sqn Ldr Pushp Vaid, VrC, “Special Heli Borne Ops – Sylhet and Meghna”, Bharat Rakshak, July 21, 2020, https://www.bharat-rakshak.com/iaf/history/1971war/special-heli-borne-ops-sylhet-and-meghna/. Accessed on September 29, 2024.

[29] Ibid.

[30] History Division, Ministry of Defence, “History of Indo-Pak War,1971”, p. 556.

[31] Ibid.

[32] Air Chief Marshal PC Lal, My years with the I.A.F. (New Delhi: Lancer Publishers, 2008) p. 209.

[33] Gp Capt SC Sharma (FAC during the 1971 war), in discussion with the author, November-December, 2024.

[34] Cardozo, n. 21, p. 1.

[35] Sharma, n. 30.

[36] Sqn Ldr Pushp Vaid (Flt Cdr, 110 HU during the 1971 war), in discussion with the author, October-December, 2024

[37] Sharma, n. 30.

[38] Vaid, n. 33.

[39] Facebook, ADGPI – Indian Army, https://www.facebook.com/Indianarmy.adgpi/photos/07-dec-1971-the-fateful-day-will-be-etched-with-glory-in-the-annals-of-history-o/580573028805997/. Accessed on January 23, 2025.

[40] Air Cmde MM Ali (Sqn pilot with 110 HU during the 1971 war) in discussion with the author, January, 2025.

[41] Vaid, n. 27.

[42] Air Cmde Nitin Sathe, “The boys were so fired up to fight the enemy”, Rediff News, December 24, 2020, https://www.rediff.com/news/special/the-boys-were-so-fired-up-to-fight-the-enemy/20201224.htm. Accessed on October 29, 2024.

[43] Nishant Gupta, Indian Air Force in India’s National Defence 2032, (New Delhi: KW Publishers, 2014), pp. 40-41.

[44] Cardozo, n. 21, p. 103.

[45] Shahzeb Jillani, “Scars of Bangladesh independence war 40 years on”, BBC News, December 13, 2011, https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-16111843. Accessed on October 29, 2024

[46i] “93,000 Pakistani soldiers surrendered on this day 51 years ago – The story behind this historic day”, YouTube video, 0:00-0:24, ANI News, Dec 16 2022, “ANINewsIndia”, Dec 16 2022, https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Oh3tDJ0IYPM&t=25s. Accessed on October 29, 2024.

[47] Air Cmde Jasjit Singh, Ed., Role of Indian Air Force in 1971 War, (New Delhi: KW Publishers, 2013), p. 125.

The post An Endless Night appeared first on CAPSS India.

Keywords: Indian Air Force, History, Transport aircraft, Douglas Dakotas, 12 RIAF, Jammu and Kashmir

Introduction

The Indo-Pakistani war of 1947-1948 marked a crucial moment in the military history of the Indian subcontinent, arising in the wake of India’s partition. On October 22, 1947, having violated the standstill agreement the tribal militias invaded Kashmir with the agenda of gaining control of the erstwhile princely state, prompting the Maharaja of Kashmir to seek military assistance from India, followed by the signing of the Instrument of Accession. Subsequently, the conflict intensified, necessitating a multifaceted Indian military response. Among the key players in this response was the lone transport squadron of the Royal Indian Air Force (RIAF), No. 12-The Yaks ^[1], whose command was in the process of being handed over by Wing Commander Shivdev Singh to Wing Commander K.L. Bhatia^[2]. This article examines the critical contributions of the Dakota transport aircraft, detailing specific operations and incidents that underscore its vital contributions to the Indo-Pakistan 1947-48 war.

Paving the way for today’s “War Veteran”

Magnanimously spreading its wings over 95 feet^[3], proudly standing at the Heritage Flight, Hindon Airbase revealing a century of history is the lone aircraft, the Mighty Dakota, fondly called “The War Veteran”. The biggest moment of reminiscence is about the atrocious time when the tribal militias plunged to the Vale of Kashmir, transforming the Heaven on Earth into an apocalyptic sight, seizing Uri, Domel and Muzzafarabad, with their contiguous objective of conquering Srinagar. Why Srinagar? Perhaps the answer lies in the fact that it was the summer capital of the Dogras and most populous region in Kashmir. At Baramulla too, they indulged in a spree of violence. Seeing the intensifying situation in Kashmir as if its soul had been wrenched to pieces, the Indian government had no other option but to bring into the picture the then lone transport squadron of Indian Air Force (IAF) available, equipped with The Mighty Douglas C-47 Dakotas.

One of the most pivotal roles played by the transport squadron was the expeditious deployment of Indian Army troops to the front lines during the most challenging circumstances. With no navigational aids, no infrastructural facilities, and no refuelling facilities for aircraft, the Srinagar airstrip proved to be the most rugged piece of land to be utilised for full-fledged military operations, as the airstrip was only meant to be used for the small personal plane of The Maharaja of Jammu and Kashmir (J&K). As beautiful as Srinagar was in winters, beautifully covered in snow, it held enormous tactical constraints leaving no roads open to be used for transportation. Meanwhile, the magnificent Himalayas also paved a crucial challenge for pilots as the mountaintops were often covered with clouds making navigation extremely difficult due to the limited ceiling capacities of the Dakotas^[4]. Nevertheless, despite the considerable challenges posed by the prevailing adverse weather conditions, the air force of the newly independent nation proceeded to enter the war zone to safeguard the most vital state of the nation, the Jammu and Kashmir.

The legendary transformation from nascent to neoteric

At the time of independence, the transport aircraft were in their fledgling stages, having been primarily structured during World War II and inherited from the 12 RIAF Squadron. More specifically, the then transport squadron was manned only by six qualified captains, with 11 others undergoing training. This was the nascent stage of the RIAF when it was thrust into the Kashmir war^[5]. The need for an effective airlift capability became paramount to save the most beautiful land of the nation from turning into a horrendous one. It can be reasonably postulated here that the history and map of India might have been quite different had the Royal Indian Air Force not been able to put our troops on the grounds of Srinagar on October 27, 1947. At that time, the region was being menacingly threatened by advancing tribal militias^[6]. The Indian government’s timely and firm response to the heart-wrenching situation in Kashmir was rapid. Inevitably, troops of first Sikh Battalion were ordered to hastily venture into Srinagar to push back the advancing tribal militias. In the early hours of October 27, 1947, four flights were flown to save the state of Kashmir.

Facing the horrors of war, lacking navigation aids and over the jagged terrains, our pilots were able to complete the most challenging landing at the Srinagar airfield, which was later described as the most arduous in history. Within five days, the massive operation was able to airlift an entire brigade to Kashmir, involving the rapid movement of around 6,000 soldiers from various locations in India to Srinagar to take offensive action against all odds. It was planned to equip each civil Dakota to carry 15 men with an additional 496 pounds of supplies, and each RIAF Dakota would be capable of carrying an additional two men. In the gruelling circumstances, the pilots demonstrated remarkable resourcefulness and skills by conducting turnaround repairs on their own before the ground crew could reach Srinagar. The unavailability of refuelling facilities at the airfield was balanced out by the extraction of surplus fuel from the transport aircraft until a Dakota was re-equipped to exclusively supply fuel to the airfield. Furthermore, in the context of a war, uninterrupted resupply became even more imperative. Three weeks after the airlift, the Dakotas undertook about 700 flights airlifting more than 2 million pounds of supplies. An untraversed route over the mighty Himalayas, embellished with peaks of about 24,000 feet, with the constantly changing weather posing huge challenges, the pilots skilfully operated the flights, bringing in the troops and their equipment^[7]. The war lasted until December 1948, with the dice of horror rolling over the entire conflict. Surprisingly, with no bomber aircraft  available to India, a Dakota was used for bombing and it was only possible due the courage and ingenuity of Air Commodore Meher Singh^[8].

The loss, the impact, the legacy

Though the resilience of the officers who undertook the challenging operations was commendable, every historic win comes with its unfortunate and unavoidable losses. India had 17 aircraft losses, which included the crash of one Dakota aircraft at Pir Panjal Range on October 30, 1947. As the war progressed, a breathtaking incident took place on March 21, 1948, when the Dakota flown by Wg Cdr K.L Bhatia was shot during an operation. But, against all odds, he utilised his phenomenal piloting skills to bring the aircraft back safely^[9]. The success of the airlift operations not only enhanced the operational capabilities of the Indian forces but also highlighted the importance of air mobility in modern warfare^[10].This strategic advantage was vital for India as it sought to consolidate its position in the aftermath of the conflict. The 1947 war marked a turning point for the Indian Air Force, particularly regarding its understanding of logistical operations and the use of air power in warfare. The war highlighted the valuable contributions of transport aircraft to the Indian Army, which flew rigorously for 3045 hours, airlifted around 3.5 million pounds of supplies and 18,000 pounds of bombs, and rescued around 10,000 refugees from the warzone. The only transport squadron of 12 RIAF played a crucial role in the 1947 Kashmir war, enabling the Indian troops to maintain their operational effectiveness.^[11]

On January 01, 1948, India respectfully brought the Jammu and Kashmir dispute to the attention of the United Nations Security Council.  Sheikh Mohammed Abdullah was appointed Prime Minister of an interim government in the state of Jammu and Kashmir by Maharaja Hari Singh on March 05, 1948. The UN Security Council facilitated the negotiation of a ceasefire agreement that came into effect on December 31, 1948. The losses incurred and challenges faced during the 1947 war highlighted the need for dedicated airlift capability of the RIAF. This led to subsequent investments in transport aircraft and training programmes, ultimately enhancing the IAF’s operational readiness in future conflicts. The successful use of transport aircraft in 1947 laid the groundwork for more sophisticated air operations in later years, including during the 1965 and 1971 wars^[12]. Exemplifying the varied and vital role of the transport aircraft—from the rapid deployment of troops to sustained logistical support —the Dakotas were central to the Indian military’s response in Kashmir. The operations undertaken by these aircraft not only contributed to immediate military successes but also established important precedents for the use of air power in India’s future military engagements. As India navigates its complex geopolitical landscape, the legacy of the RIAF’s transport aircraft during the 1947 war serves as a reminder of the enduring significance of air mobility in national defence. The extremely important operational lessons learnt during this period continue to inspire military strategies and underscore the importance of robust logistical frameworks in contemporary warfare.

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Notes:

[1] Anchit Gupta. “12 Squadron in the 1947 Kashmir War,” IAF History, (July 17, 2022), https://iafhistory.in/2022/07/17/the-epic-journey-of-no-12-squadron-in-the-1947-kashmir-war/, accessed on December 05, 2024.

[2] Ranjit Bhatia, “The Airlift that saved Kashmir,” Bharat Rakshak, (April 16, 2024), https://www.bharat-rakshak.com/iaf/history/1948war/the-airlift-that-saved-kashmir/2/, accessed on December 05, 2024.

[3] Britannica, “DC-3,” October 8, 2024, https://www.britannica.com/technology/DC-3, accessed on December 22, 2024.

[4] Directorate of Operations, Historic Cell “Kashmir Operation 1947-48”.

[5] Bharat Kumar, An Incredible War: IAF in Kashmir War 1947-1948 (KW Publishers, 2013), p. 27.

[6] Bhatia, n.2.

[7] Directorate of Operation, n.4

[8] Ibid.

[9] Jagan Pillarisetti, “Aircraft Losses in the 47-48 Operations. Indian Air Force,” (October 5, 2022), https://www.bharat-rakshak.com/iaf/history/1948war/aircraft-losses/, accessed on December 05, 2024.

[10] Ministry of Defence. (2024). The Story of the Indian Air Force: A Journey Through Time. https://static.pib.gov.in/WriteReadData/specificdocs/documents/2024/oct/doc2024107411201.pdfa

[11] Directorate of operations, Historic Cell “Kashmir Operation1947- 48” (IAF archives, courtesy IAF History Cell)

[12] S N Prasad. Operations In Jammu and Kashmir 1947-48 (Natraj Publishers, 2009).

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Keywords: SpaDeX, Docking, PSLV-C60, Demonstration, Space Station, ISRO

The Indian Space Research Organisation (ISRO) successfully achieved a docking between two satellites on January 16, 2025, in its Space Docking Experiment (SpaDeX) mission. The mission was launched on the PSLV-C60 rocket on December 30, 2024.[1] The mission is a significant step forward in the development of space docking technology. The success of the docking experiment is a milestone towards bringing India closer to achieving its ambitious goals in space. The SpaDeX is a technology demonstrator mission to showcase in-space docking between small satellites. The mission’s success has made India the fourth space-faring nation globally to develop docking capabilities. The US, Russia and China have already mastered this complex technology, which is crucial for all spacecraft operations in space, such as docking with a space station, return missions from the Moon, and Rendezvous and Proximity Operations (RPO).

The Mission

On December 30, 2024, the PSLV rocket deployed two identical satellites at an altitude of 470 km in a circular orbit.  The satellites SDX01 (chaser) and SDX02 (target) were inserted into orbit with a slight time delay and a relative velocity to keep them apart and allow them to drift away from each other before the docking experiment. Each satellite weighs around 220 kilograms. The docking experiment commenced after testing and calibration of all onboard sensors.  The algorithms were also tested on the ground before giving the command prompts for autonomous docking. The process involved a very delicate procedure of the chaser satellite approaching the target satellite in a controlled manner at a relative speed differential of 10 millimetres per second, aligning the docking ports and finally executing the handshake when all parameters were within limits. This process took place in incremental stages with the distance between the satellites being reduced from 20 kilometres to 15 metres, then 3 metres, stabilising before moving further closer.[2]

SpaDeX has demonstrated docking and undocking capabilities between satellites. This includes transferring power and operating scientific payloads. The SDX01 and SDX02 are controlled as a single satellite after the docking. Further, the mission completion indicates that the satellites are undocked and start functioning independently. [3]

The Objectives

The primary objective of the SpaDeX mission is to demonstrate technology for satellite rendezvous, docking and undocking between two small satellites in low earth orbit. The secondary objectives are to accomplish the transfer of electric power between the docked satellites, satellite control after docking, and payload operations after undocking.[4]

The Technology

The technologies required for such precise manoeuvring of satellites in close proximity involve multiple complexities like designing the hardware components, integrating them and running accurate software programmes and algorithms. The propulsion system and the thrust control mechanisms are equally complex. Moreover, the mission has to be monitored and controlled from Earth, which requires visibility in space through satellite surveillance and tracking infrastructure. The docking mission involves several new sensors, such as Laser Range Finder, Rendezvous Sensor, Proximity and Docking sensor and so on, that take precise measurements while the two satellites approach each other. On-board processors determine the relative position and velocity of the other satellite. Mastering these technologies will pave the way for completely autonomous systems for future missions that would involve docking or RPO.[5]

The docking system needs to be compatible with the systems in use by other countries, as this would enable participation in global space programmes. The International Docking System Standard (IDSS) is used by spacecraft going to the International Space Station. India must have a similar docking mechanism. India’s docking system that is being tested is similar to the IDSS but uses two motors as compared to the 24 used in IDSS. In addition, India’s docking test is conducted with two identical satellites. Further docking experiments with dissimilar satellites should also be done to consolidate the docking technology.[6]

Why the Mission is Important

Docking is the outcome of a successful RPO. Docking unfolds several possibilities in space like on-orbit servicing, on-orbit refuelling, on-orbit inspection and so on. These activities can facilitate satellite life extension and avoid the need to replace satellites when they reach their end of life. Further, docking capability is vital for India’s lunar and Mars missions to bring spacecraft back. Docking technology also enables the assembly of space station modules and the transit of humans into a space station. Such a capability will provide the building blocks for the assembly of the Bharatiya Antriksh Station, which is to begin in 2028.[7]

Docking Capability is Not New

Docking experiments started back in the 1960s, along with the development of co-orbital satellites. The Americans were the first to achieve a docking in 1966, as part of the Gemini programme, when the Gemini VIII capsule docked with a target spacecraft. It was a crewed mission orbiting the Earth. Later, in 1967, the Soviet Union demonstrated an uncrewed automated docking of Kosmos 186 and Kosmos 188 satellites. China joined the elite group in 2011 when the unmanned Shenzhou 8 spacecraft docked with the Tiangong-1 space laboratory. A year later, China conducted the first crewed space docking, with Shenzhou 9 docking with Tiangong-1. India has become the fourth country globally to have space docking technology on the completion of the SpaDeX mission.[8]

Delays and Challenges

The SpaDeX mission is challenging because of the requirement of very precise measurements and highly accurate execution. There were two attempts on January 07 and January 09 to bring the satellites closer, but they had to be aborted. The docking could not happen as the satellites were drifting more than anticipated.[9] More attempts were planned after stabilising the satellites and ruling out any system anomalies. Had the docking not been successful on January 16, 2025, in the planned window, it could have been delayed up to March 2025, when the next window would be available. This is not an abnormal situation, as multiple trials have to be undertaken before a final attempt. In an interview with the media, the Chairman of ISRO, Dr S. Somanath, emphasised that it was India’s first attempt at docking, and every first attempt comes with challenges. He further clarified that the docking exercise would be undertaken only when all sensors are fully calibrated and tested to satisfaction.[10]

What Next

The docking procedures will eventually be perfected in due course. The experience gained in this experiment needs to be translated into more complex experiments, gradually progressing to the docking of human-rated spacecraft.  India also needs to have the capability of on-orbit refuelling, servicing, and inspection of satellites. Docking technology is also an enabling capability for in-orbit assembly of India’s space station. Furthermore, this docking technology would facilitate sample return missions from the Moon, like the Chandrayaan-4 mission. All this will only be possible with adequate space surveillance and tracking capabilities. India needs to create a robust space observation capability for situational awareness. This will require infrastructure like radars, optical telescopes, radio telescopes, geo-locating sensors, laser ranging sensors, space weather forecasting sensors, and even sensors in space.[11]

Conclusion

The SpaDeX is a groundbreaking achievement, placing India alongside select space-faring nations that possess the capability of docking in space. This will open up multiple possibilities for space exploration. It will also open the doors for future sample return missions and human missions to the Moon and other celestial bodies. The assembly of India’s space station is also dependent on the mastery of docking procedures. The interoperability of docking ports and systems in future satellites and spacecraft with IDSS is necessary for participating in collaborative space exploration missions with other countries.

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Notes

[1]  Press Information Bureau, “SpaDeX Mission: Revolutionising Space Exploration,” https://pib.gov.in/PressReleasePage.aspx?PRID=2093369, accessed on January 16, 2025.

[2]  Pallava Bagla, “ISRO Trial For Historic Space Docking, Satellites Close In Till 3 Metres”, NDTV, January 12, 2025, India News section, https://www.ndtv.com/india-news/isro-set-to-script-history-as-2-indian-satellites-close-in-for-handshake-7454077, accessed on January 12, 2025.

[3]  Ibid.

[4]  Indian Space research Organisation, Department of Space, “SpaDeX Mission,” https://www.isro.gov.in/mission_SpaDeX.html, accessed on January 14, 2025.

[5] Express Web Desk, “ISRO SpaDeX Docking Mission Live Updates: In a trial attempt at docking, SpaDeX satellites successfully come 3 meters to each other, says ISRO”, The Indian Express, January 12, 2025, Science section, https://indianexpress.com/article/technology/science/isro-spadex-docking-mission-live-updates-9773511/, accessed on January 12, 2025.

[6] Anonna Dutt, “ISRO to attempt ‘docking’ satellites in space: What it means, why it matters for future missions,” The Indian Express, January 14, 2025,Explained Sci-Tech section, https://indianexpress.com/article/explained/explained-sci-tech/isro-docking-satellites-attempt-9774607/, accessed on January 14, 2025.

[7] Press Information Bureau, n.1.

[8] Bagla, n.2.

[9] Dutt, n.6.

[10] “ISRO SpaDeX Docking Mission: Satellites Come Within Three Metres In Trial Attempt”, DD News, January 12, 2025, https://ddnews.gov.in/en/isro-spadex-docking-mission-satellites-come-within-three-metres-in-trial-attempt/, accessed on January 14, 2025.

[11] Bagla, n.2.

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Keywords: China, USA, Nuclear modernisation, Pentagon

On December 18, 2024, the US Department of Defense (DoD) released its annual report on “Military and Security Developments Involving the People’s Republic of China”. Also known as the China Military Power Report, it is released by the US DoD in order to assess the current and future trends and capabilities of military-technological development of the People’s Liberation Army (PLA) since the year 2000.[1] This paper examines the report for the nuclear dimensions of China’s military modernisation.

The report mentions that China is continuously modernising, diversifying and expanding its nuclear force. It estimates that China has surpassed 600 operational warheads in 2024 and is projected to get over 1000 operational nuclear warheads by 2030.[2] In the previous report in May 2023, the estimate was 500 nuclear warheads.

Main Points from the Report on China’s Nuclear Modernisation:

Triad-Modernisation

In the land-based system, China currently has approximately 400 ICBMs (Intercontinental Ballistic Missiles) in its arsenal. China’s silo-based ICBMs consist of liquid-propelled DF-5 class and solid-propelled DF-31 class. China is constructing around 30 new DF-5 class silos in the central part and extensively renovating the legacy facilities of the DF-5 class. This development indicates China is building more silos for DF-5 class ICBMs and increasing the number of brigade-level units (BDEs) while adding more launchers to each unit. However, it does not seem like this project will reach the same scale or number of solid-propellant missile silos.  In terms of road-mobile systems, China has DF-31 and DF-41 class ICBMs.  In the road-mobile category, China is working towards enhancing accuracy and increasing the number of launchers per unit.^[3]

In the sea-based development, the report suggests China has likely deployed the extended-range JL-3 submarine-launched ballistic missile (SLBM) on its JIN class submarines. China has enhanced its sea-based deterrence with the capability to target the continental US from coastal water.  Presently, China is operating six operational JIN class submarines, each capable of carrying up to 12 JL-2 or JL-3 SLBMs.  China continues to build more JIN class submarines than the next generation type 096 SSBN. [4]

For the air component of the nuclear triad, China has fielded H-6N bombers. Compared to H-6 bombers, H-6N has air-to-air refuelling capability and can carry an external-nuclear capable ALBM (Air-Launched Ballistic Missile).  The report claims China is probably developing strategic stealth bombers.[5]

Posture-Change

The PLA is working to implement “early warning counterstrike capabilities”, which is the term for its Launch on Warning Posture (LOW) posture, by the end of this decade. China probably seeks to keep at least one part of its force, especially silo-based force, on LOW posture. China is also enhancing its missile defence capability of the HQ-19 ballistic missile defence system. It has improved the mid-course interception capabilities of the ICBMs and IRBMs (Intermediate Range Ballistic Missiles). [6]

Cooperation With Russia

China has likely finished building one of its two sodium-cooled fast breeder nuclear reactors (CFR-600) in Xiapu and is still working on the second one. Russia is helping by supplying highly enriched uranium (HEU) assemblies. The report also claims that China will use its fast breeder reactor and reprocessing facilities to produce plutonium for nuclear weapons.[7] In the air domain last November, China also, for the first time, deployed the H-6N bomber in its “Joint Strategic Air Patrol” with Russia.[8]

China’s Response to the Report

China’s Ministry of Defence spokesperson, Zhang Xiaogang, criticised the report as an exaggeration and an excuse for the US’s own military development. He said China’s nuclear weapons “is not intended to threaten other countries, but rather for defense and self-protection, to safeguard our strategic security”. [9] Although China has not denied growing its nuclear arsenal, it dismisses US concerns about the matter, claiming Washington is using it as a cover for its goal of “absolute strategic predominance”. [10]

Reasons for China’s Nuclear Expansion

One of the main reasons for changing China’s nuclear force structure is its attempt to ensure that the US should have no doubts about its ability to retaliate after a nuclear attack, especially as the US plans its nuclear modernisation. [11]

Andrew Erikson argues China’s nuclear build-up demonstrates its commitment to having practical military options at every level of escalation. He highlights a growing perception in China of potential crises or even war with the United States over the Taiwan issue. As a result, China has shifted from maintaining numerical restraint in nuclear weapons to making its expansion a top priority. This shift aims to discourage US and allied intervention in Taiwan-related situations and to manage escalation if it occurs.[12]

Another reason is to demonstrate credibility.  The credibility of People’s Liberation Army Rocket Force (PLARF) came under question after US intelligence reported large-scale corruption and non-functionality of silos in western China.[13] Since 2022, China has purged several high-ranking military officials in charge of graft, including removing top leadership from PLARF and the disappearance of two defence ministers.  Despite these setbacks, the PLA’s ability to continue with the modernisation drive is significant.[14] After a gap of 40 years, last year, on September 25, China also conducted a full-range test of ICBM in the Western Pacific Ocean.[15] This test was also intended to send the signal to the domestic and external audiences that everything is on track within the PLA as China aims to achieve its “centennial goal of building modern military by 2027”.[16]

Conclusion

China’s threat perception and ambition to achieve status parity with the US are the main reasons for its nuclear expansion.  It is not directed towards India, but as a neighbouring country with existing border disputes, India should closely monitor these developments.  For India, the major concern can be the development of IRBM and the enhancement of mid-course interception capabilities. In terms of India’s response, Sethi argues, India’s focus should not be on achieving numerical parity in nuclear warheads but rather on advancing technologies that ensure robust second-strike capability and assured retaliation.[17]

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Notes

[1] David Sacks “Six Takeaways From the Pentagon’s Report on China’s Military”, Council on Foreign Relations, December 20, 2024, https://www.cfr.org/blog/six-takeaways-pentagons-report-chinas-military, accessed on December 30, 2024.

[2] U.S. Department of Defense, Military and Security Developments Involving the People’s Republic of China 2024, December 18, 2024, https://media.defense.gov/2024/Dec/18/2003615520/-1/-1/0/MILITARY-AND-SECURITY-DEVELOPMENTS-INVOLVING-THE-PEOPLES-REPUBLIC-OF-CHINA-2024.PDF, accessed on December, 31, 2024.

[3] U.S. Department of Defense, Military and Security Developments Involving the People’s Republic of China 2024, December 18, 2024, https://media.defense.gov/2024/Dec/18/2003615520/-1/-1/0/MILITARY-AND-SECURITY-DEVELOPMENTS-INVOLVING-THE-PEOPLES-REPUBLIC-OF-CHINA-2024.PDF, accessed on December, 31, 2024.

[4] Ibid., p.101–11.

[5] Ibid., p.105.

[6] U.S. Department of Defense, Military and Security Developments Involving the People’s Republic of China 2024, December 18, 2024, https://media.defense.gov/2024/Dec/18/2003615520/-1/-1/0/MILITARY-AND-SECURITY-DEVELOPMENTS-INVOLVING-THE-PEOPLES-REPUBLIC-OF-CHINA-2024.PDF, accessed on January 2, 2025.

[7] U.S. Department of Defense, Military and Security Developments Involving the People’s Republic of China 2024, December 18, 2024, https://media.defense.gov/2024/Dec/18/2003615520/-1/-1/0/MILITARY-AND-SECURITY-DEVELOPMENTS-INVOLVING-THE-PEOPLES-REPUBLIC-OF-CHINA-2024.PDF, accessed on December, 31, 2024.

[8] Yu-Cheng Chen, “PLA Steps up Security Cooperation With Russia in 2024”, China Brief, vol. 24, no.24 (December 2024). https://jamestown.org/program/pla-steps-up-security-cooperation-with-russia-in-2024/, accessed on January 1, 2025.

[9] Global Times, “China’s Defense Ministry Slams Pentagon Report on China’s Military Development as Deceptive, Hypocritical”, Global Times, December 21, 2024, https://www.globaltimes.cn/page/202412/1325516.shtml, accessed on December 31, 2024.

[10] Demetri Sevastopulo, “China Is Rapidly Expanding Nuclear Forces, Says Pentagon”, Financial Times, December 18, 2024, https://www.ft.com/content/5290c045-09d1-4da1-844b-166bf227584b, accessed on January 1, 2025.

[11] Fiona S. Cunningham et al., “China’s Nuclear Arsenal Is Growing. What Does That Mean for U.S.-China Relations?” Washington Post, November 11, 2021, https://www.washingtonpost.com/politics/2021/11/11/chinas-nuclear-arsenal-is-growing-what-does-that-mean-us-china-relations/, accessed on January 2, 2025.

[12] Andrew Erickson “What the Pentagon’s New Report on Chinese Military Power Reveals About Capabilities, Context, and Consequence”, War on the Rocks, December, 19, 2024, https://warontherocks.com/2024/12/what-the-pentagons-new-report-on-chinese-military-power-reveals-about-capabilities-context-and-consequences/, accessed on January 2, 2025.

[13] Peter Martin and Jennifer Jacobs, “US Intelligence Shows Flawed China Missiles Led Xi to Purge Army”, Bloomberg.Com, January 6, 2024, https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2024-01-06/us-intelligence-shows-flawed-china-missiles-led-xi-jinping-to-purge-military, accessed on January 2, 2025.

[14] Cate Cadell et al., “Pentagon Warns of China’s Rapid Military Buildup despite Corruption,” Washington Post, December 18, 2024, https://www.washingtonpost.com/national-security/2024/12/18/china-military-power-report-pentagon/, accessed on January 1, 2025.

[15] Prahlad Kumar Singh “China’s ICBM Test: An Analysis”, CAPS, October 18, 2024, https://capssindia.org/chinas-icbm-test-an-analysis, accessed on January 2, 2025.

[16] Liu Caiyu “China’s Centennial Goal of Building a Modern Military by 2027 in Alignment with National Strength” Global Times”, October 31, 2020, https://www.globaltimes.cn/content/1205238.shtml, accessed on January 1, 2025.

[17] Manpreet Sethi, “Xi’s Nuclear Garden: Of Sprawling Silos and Sobering Messages,” AIR POWER Journal vol.16, no. 4, 2021, pp.1–16.

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Keywords: International Exercises, HADR, First Responder, Combat Evacuation

As one year fades into memory, there is excitement and hope for a brighter and more prosperous future  ahead. At the same time, one must also look at the milestones in the year gone by so that not only are valuable lessons derived but also to ensure that the same gets recorded for posterity in the journey of the Indian Air Force (IAF). The year 2024 was a year of many firsts as far as the IAF was concerned. The year began with an all-women contingent participating in the Republic Day Parade on January 26, 2024 at the Kartavya Path in New Delhi. It also was the year Agniveer Vayu women joined the frontline squadrons of the IAF. The esteemed President’s Standard was conferred to the 45 and 221 Squadrons, and the President’s Colours was given to the 11 Base Repair Depot and the 509 Signal Unit by the President of India, Smt Droupadi Murmu, on March 08, 2024. It is the highest honour that can be conferred on a military unit and is the first time in the history of the IAF that four units received the President’s Standard and Colours in one event simultaneously.

Following the approval for the creation of the Weapon Systems (WS) branch of the IAF in 2022, the Weapon Systems School was inaugurated on July 01, 2024 by the IAF Chief, Air Chief Marshal VR Chaudhari, and the first batch of officers of this branch passed out in December 2024. This new branch comprises four streams: the flying stream for operating weapon systems on airborne platforms, the remote stream to operate remotely piloted aircraft, a stream for mission commanders overseeing surface-to-air and surface-to-surface weapon systems, and the intelligence stream for processing space-based intelligence and imagery.

In another first, a Rohini radar was towed in a barge and deployed at the Lakshadweep and Minicoy islands to bolster the region’s air defence. On 26 December 2024, an AN-32 of the IAF successfully carried out the first night landing at Agatti airport, showcasing remarkable skill and professionalism. In March 2024, an IAF C-17 aircraft, in a remarkable display of jointness and integration, carried out a precision drop of two Combat Rubberised Raiding Craft (CRRC) and MARCOS of the Indian Navy, 2600 Kms from the western coast of India. The operations were to rescue the crew of the bulk ship MV Ruen, seized off the coast of Yemen by Somali pirates.

On February 17, 2024, the Indian Air Force conducted Exercise Vayushakti on its Pokhran Range in Rajasthan. Live shooting was a part of the exercise, witnessed by a mixed audience, including the diplomatic corps of allied nations, which showed IAF’s offensive capability. Indigenous Tejas Mk1 aircraft, Dhruv and Prachand helicopters were part of the drill along with Jaguars, Rafale, Mig 29, Su 30 MKI, Mirage 2000, Hawk, C-130J, Apache, and Chinook, both day and night operations. The indigenous surface-to-air missile systems, Akaash and Samar, demonstrated their capability to detect and intercept intruding aircraft.  The exercise illustrated the IAF’s ability to simultaneously conduct operations from several locations and accurately deliver ordinances on designated targets.

Exercise Gagan Shakti 2024 began on April 1, 2024, wherein the entire air force was deployed in two phases simulating two front exigency potential threats. During day and night, the IAF flew extensive exercises with a large force to test all the key attributes of airpower – speed, precision, flexibility, reach and responsiveness. They also conducted high-tempo operations for 10 days. The IAF conducted the largest international exercise, ‘Tarang Shakti 2024,’ with participation from 11 countries with their aerial assets and 27 countries as observers from all continents globally. The exercise was done in two phases at the Sulur and Jodhpur air bases, with over 1000 sorties flown during the exercise and many air force chiefs personally taking part in the exercise.[1] This exercise tested the mettle of the IAF in planning and executing an international exercise as well as demonstrating its indigenous defence capabilities on the sidelines with an international defence exposition at both venues.

The Indian Air Force, on the sidelines of ‘Tarang Shakti 2024,’ also conducted a symposium on air domain awareness. The theme of the seminar was “Collaborative Approach to Facilitate Air Domain Awareness Towards Enhancing Regional Security.” With participants from over 27 countries comprising 50 delegates, spanning all the continents of the world, the symposium generated debate on an important issue that governs the sovereignty and security of the aerospace domain. This symposium marked the tentative first steps by the IAF in its journey to become a catalyst and a net security provider of the aerial domain in the region.[2]

In January 2024, the IAF took part in Exercise Desert Knight with the United Arab Emirates (UAE) Air Force and the French Air and Space Force at the Al Dhafra air base in the UAE. The exercise, apart from IAF aircraft operating from Al Dhafra air base in the UAE, also involved IAF aircraft operating from bases within India over Indian FIR  in the Arabian Sea. This exercise enhanced synergy and interoperability between the three air forces. The IAF also participated in the second edition of Red Flag 2024, held at Eielson Air Base, Alaska, from June 04-14, 2024. The exercise witnessed the participation of the IAF, along with the Royal Netherlands Air Force, The Republic of Singapore Air Force, German Luftwaffe, Royal Air Force of the United Kingdom, and the US Air Force. This was also the first time the Indian Rafale aircraft participated in Exercise Red Flag. The IAF participated in Exercise Udara Shakti with the Royal Malaysian Air Force from August 05-09, 2024 at Kuantan, Malaysia. Exercise Eastern Bridge between the IAF and the Royal Oman Air Force took place at Masirah, Oman, from September 11-22, 2024. The IAF took part in the 12th edition of the Joint Military Training exercise with The Republic of Singapore Air Force at Kalaikunda Air Base during October-November 2024.

During the year, the IAF lived up to its role of being the first responder during HADR missions, fighting forest fires through Bambi Bucket operations in the Nilgiris in March 2024, Nainital and Dindigul in April 2024. The IAF transport and helicopter fleet carried out herculean rescue and relief operations in coordination with NDRF and the state administration when massive landslides created mayhem in Wayanad on July 30, 2024.

The IAF also played an important role during five of the seven phases of the General Election 2024, flying over 1000 hours in more than 1750 sorties, lifting electronic voting machines and deploying personnel of the Election Commission of India to remote corners of the country and to places where movement by road posed security risks. The Indian Prime Minister, Shri Narendra Modi, gifted four Arogya Maitri cubes to Ukraine in August 2024, which were transported to Poland by an IAF C-17 and thereafter sent to Ukraine by rail.  These cubes contain medicines and equipment which can be rapidly deployed in disaster and conflict zones.

Meanwhile, the Warfare and Aerospace Strategy Programme (WASP) of the IAF, aimed at inculcating critical thinking on aerospace, geopolitics, international relations, and national security issues, continued to gain traction during the year. As a part of the programme, the External Affairs Minister, Dr S Jaishankar interacted with the course participants, discussing his book, ‘The India Way: Strategies for an Uncertain World’ at Air HQs on April 30, 2024.

The year 2024 was seminal in many respects for the IAF. Successfully hosting an international air exercise at an unprecedented scale in the region bore testimony to its growing diplomatic reach and heft globally. With growing challenges in a region beset with confrontation among global powers, the IAF needs to keep its powder dry while collaborating with friendly foreign air forces to ensure peace and stability in the region.

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Notes:-

[1] Anil Golani, “How the IAF has strengthened India’s strategic edge”, The Tribune India, October 08, 2024, https://www.tribuneindia.com/news/comment/how-the-iaf-has-strengthened-indias-strategic-edge/ Accessed on 01 January 25.

[2] Anil Golani, “Air Domain Awareness and Regional Security”, The Chanakaya Forum, September 16, 2024, https://chanakyaforum.com/air-domain-awareness-and-regional-security/. Accessed on 01 January 25.

(Disclaimer: The views and opinions expressed in this article are those of the author and do not necessarily reflect the position of the Centre for Air Power Studies [CAPS])

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